Showing papers in "The Geographical Journal in 2005"
TL;DR: This paper investigated how smallholder farmers at two sites in Kenya and Tanzania cope with climate stress and how constraints and opportunities shape variations in coping strategies between households and over time during a drought, finding that households where an individual was able to specialize in one favoured activity, such as employment or charcoal burning, in the context of overall diversification by the household, were often less vulnerable than households where each individual is engaged in many activities at low intensity.
Abstract: We investigate how smallholder farmers at two sites in Kenya and Tanzania cope with climate stress and how constraints and opportunities shape variations in coping strategies between households and over time during a drought. On the basis of this analysis, we draw out implications for adaptation and adaptive policy. We find that households where an individual was able to specialize in one favoured activity, such as employment or charcoal burning, in the context of overall diversification by the household, were often less vulnerable than households where each individual is engaged in many activities at low intensity. Many households had limited access to the favoured coping options due to a lack of skill, labour and/or capital. This lack of access was compounded by social relations that led to exclusion of certain groups, especially women, from carrying out favoured activities with sufficient intensity. These households instead arried out a multitude of less favoured and frequently complementary activities, such as collecting indigenous fruit. While characterized by suitability to seasonal environmental variations and low demands on time and cash investments, these strategies often yielded marginal returns. Both the marginalization of local niche products and the commercialization of forest resources exemplify processes leading to differential vulnerability. We suggest that vulnerability can usefully be viewed in terms of the interaction of such processes, following the concept of locality. We argue that coping is a distinct component of vulnerability and that understanding the dynamism of coping and vulnerability is critical to developing adaptation measures that support people as active agents.
479 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a case study using participatory mapping and participatory GIS in community forest legitimization, planning and management in Tinto, Cameroon is presented, where good governance criteria are applied ex-post to the implementation procedures, the geo-information outputs, and the longer-term outcomes of the PGIS processes.
Abstract: This paper critically reviews and analyses participatory GIS (PGIS) and participatory mapping applications within participatory spatial planning for community-based natural resource management in developing countries. There is an often implicit assumption that PGIS use is effective, in that it meets content needs, satisfies underlying local stakeholder interests and therefore is a tool for better governance. The analytical framework looks at participatory spatial planning performance with respect to key dimensions of governance, especially the intensity of community participation and empowerment, equity within communities and between ‘governed’ and ‘governing’, respect for indigenous knowledge, rights, ownership, legitimacy, and effectiveness. Specific development focus is given by a case study using participatory mapping and PGIS in community forest legitimization, planning and management in Tinto, Cameroon. ‘Good governance’ criteria are applied ex-post to the implementation procedures, the geo-information outputs, and the longer-term outcomes of the PGIS processes. Impacts of incorporating PGIS were examined in terms of the types and degrees of participation in the process; access to, and the uses made of, the geographic information; whether the information outputs met stakeholders’ requirements; and the overall changes in equity and empowerment in the community. It was found that PGIS/participatory mapping processes contributed – positively, though not comprehensively – to good governance, by improving dialogue, redistributing resource access and control rights – though not always equitably – legitimizing and using local knowledge, exposing local stakeholders to geospatial analysis, and creating some actor empowerment through training. PGIS promoted empowerment by supporting community members’ participation in decision-making and actions, and by enabling land use planning decisions beyond community forestry itself.
227 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined prevailing wisdoms on the topic of poverty-environmental interactions, problematized some standard assumptions and interrogated the geographical literature on the subject, and gave particular attention to the political ecology approach as a lens through which this dynamic may be understood.
Abstract: This paper examines prevailing wisdoms on the topic of poverty–environmental interactions, problematizes some standard assumptions and interrogates the geographical literature on the subject. Dominant development discourse has tended to blame the poor for environmental degradation, ignoring the role of other processes and actors at various scales in causing environmental degradation. We examine how definitions of poverty, institutional arrangements, conventional economic models and assumed feedback loops may influence our understanding of poverty–environment interactions. The article gives particular attention to the political ecology approach as a lens through which this dynamic may be understood. Recent work in political ecology has broadened views of poverty–environment interactions by focusing on issues of power, scale and discourse in influencing outcomes and policies.
210 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors re-examine estimates of Cerrado vegetation change dynamics using high-resolution satellite remote sensing data from an area of interest extracted from eastern Mato Grosso State.
Abstract: The Cerrado, the tropical savanna covering 22% of Brazil's territory, or approximately 1.783 million km2, has suffered significant human impacts during the past three decades. This paper re-examines estimates of Cerrado vegetation change dynamics using high-resolution satellite remote sensing data from an area of interest extracted from eastern Mato Grosso State. This region has undergone a high degree of typical agricultural development since the early 1970s. Results indicate significant loss of original vegetation as well as high levels of regeneration, suggesting Cerrado vegetation may be more resilient to human impacts than catastrophic estimations suggest. The paper concludes with a critical review of Cerrado land-cover change studies and the implications of evidence for vegetation regeneration, land-cover dynamism and land-use intensification, paying particular attention to spatial scale and research methods. The discussion concludes that Cerrado land-cover change studied at a higher resolution and larger scales (smaller area) is required to represent more effectively the complexity of land conversion for better assessment of human impacts and environmental policy.
159 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the impact of dam construction on the sense of place of deracinated aboriginal peoples in Canada, including the removal of the Cheslatta T'En from their ancestral lands by the Aluminum Company of Canada (Alcan).
Abstract: The water resources of Canada are today, and have always been, of major importance to the welfare of Canadians. Throughout most of Canada's history, these resources have been viewed within a supply–management framework and, frequently, exploited through the construction of ‘megaprojects’, often with little or no concern for issues such as environmental harm and social and community disruption. As in many parts of the world, those most affected by such large-scale water resource developments have been aboriginals (in Canada, ‘First Nations’ peoples). Although the issues of environmental, social and economic damage to First Nations as a result of water megaprojects have been investigated, little has been written about the impact of such projects – especially dam construction – on the loss of sense of place of deracinated peoples. This paper investigates one example of such loss of sense of place, that of the Cheslatta T’En forcibly removed from their ancestral lands in the 1950s so as to allow for the construction of a private hydroelectric dam by the Aluminum Company of Canada (Alcan).
93 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined the effects of wealth status on agricultural practice and soil fertility, arguing that differences in the practices of wealthier and poorer farmers lead to differential social and environmental outcomes in rural Burkina Faso, and that while poorer farmers may have agricultural practices that minimize environmental degradation, their exclusion from key institutions that provide access to resources has serious livelihood consequences and potentials for increasing socioeconomic differentiation.
Abstract: In rural Burkina Faso, intensification has been an uneven process that has resulted in social costs, particularly in the form of uneven distribution of assets and disparate environmental trade-offs. This study examines the effects of wealth status on agricultural practice and soil fertility, arguing that differences in the practices of wealthier and poorer farmers lead to differential social and environmental outcomes. Two concerns are highlighted. First is the role of poverty in environmental degradation. Much of the debate about the role of wealth and poverty in environmental outcomes in developing countries has pinpointed poverty as the main causal explanation. Using studies of agricultural practices and soil fertility from several villages in southwestern Burkina Faso, this paper will counter this dominant view by showing that wealthier farmers farm much larger areas, have fewer trees in their fields, and use higher levels of animal traction which, in turn, has led to lower levels of soil fertility. A second concern is that while poorer farmers may have agricultural practices that minimize environmental degradation, their exclusion from key institutions that provide access to resources has serious livelihood consequences and potentials for increasing socioeconomic differentiation. The agricultural practices of wealthier farmers, while not optimal environmentally, result in higher levels of household wealth. A paradox emerges that while poorer farmers are conserving environmental resources, they are doing so at the expense of economic development and well-being.
91 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the conceptual basis of community forestry from around the world, based on case studies presented in the literature, mainly over the last decade, is assessed and an overall conclusion is offered regarding the extent to which community forestry can be adapted to foster practices that enhance livelihoods, particularly for poverty populations, in rural United States communities.
Abstract: This paper provides an assessment of the conceptual basis of community forestry from around the world, based on case studies presented in the literature, mainly over the last decade. More than 400 documents were examined for this comprehensive qualitative meta-study (meta-theory, meta-analysis, meta-method, and meta-synthesis) of community forestry. An overall conclusion is offered regarding the extent to which community forestry can be adapted to foster practices that enhance livelihoods, particularly for poverty populations, in rural United States communities. Special attention is paid to signifiers of community empowerment and reflexivity as well as other elements of success suggested in the literature.
90 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors analyze the implications of contract farming for productive relations by examining its impact upon farmers and firms and find that despite the disadvantages of contract farms for growers, and the disproportional risks born by producers, they enter into contract farming labour agreements because they lack alternatives for financing, technical assistance and access to markets.
Abstract: In recent decades contract farming as a mechanism that integrates and subordinates agricultural production to export oriented agribusiness has expanded in Third World countries. In Mexico contract farming dominates the production of horticultural crops for processing and export. It is also used for barley and to grow some varieties of wheat for Cargill. The contract farming labour agreement represents an institution that links local and global processes where agribusiness is the key actor that integrates local farmers to national and world markets. The purpose of this paper is to analyse the implications of contract farming for productive relations by examining its impact upon farmers and firms. The study found that despite the disadvantages of contract farming for growers, and the disproportional risks born by producers, they enter into contract farming labour agreements because they lack alternatives for financing, technical assistance and access to markets. The experience of contract farming in Mexico and several Third World countries shows that its growth is related to the implementation of neo-liberal policies that are accompanied by the withdrawal of state support and regulation of agricultural production. In this context, contract farming represents a livelihood strategy for many Mexican growers.
71 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examine wildlife decline in northern Cote d'Ivoire with emphasis on the political-economic and cultural dimensions of market hunting and the role of hunters associations.
Abstract: This paper examines wildlife decline in northern Cote d’Ivoire with emphasis on the political-economic and cultural dimensions of market hunting. Hunting and the trade in wild animal meat are situated within the economic diversification strategies of impoverished farmers and the flourishing of hunter associations. The role of hunter associations is critical in the rise in the number of hunters and firearms in the case study area of Kakoli. Initiation into the national hunters’ association, Binkadi, allows card-carrying members to bear arms without legal repercussions. Higher quality arms and rural poverty motivate many of these recruits to engage in market hunting. Game market surveys for 1981–82 and 1997–99 in Kakoli show tremendous pressure on both vulnerable and robust species alike. Game depletion is conceptualized as the outcome of interacting social and biophysical processes that produce hunting pressure and habitat change. By drawing attention to the political-economic, ecological, and cultural dimensions of wildlife decline, this study implicates a diversity of actors and institutions in the dynamics of game depletion.
63 citations
TL;DR: This article examined the hypothesis that poor households engage in less sustainable soil management practices than rich households in a similar socioeconomic environment and found that soil quality measures on the farms of rich and poor households are not significantly different, refuting the conventional wisdom that the wealthy are better managers of the environment.
Abstract: This study examines the hypothesis that poor households engage in less sustainable soil management practices than rich households in a similar socioeconomic environment. This broad objective is explored in Mali's southern cotton belt through three specific research questions. First, is there empirical evidence to support the claim that poor households engage in less sustainable soil management practices than rich households? Second, what local and extra-local factors influence household agricultural management approaches in southern Mali? Third, what broader scale political and economic processes are linked to the factors that influence local-level agricultural management approaches? The author reports that soil quality measures on the farms of rich and poor households are not significantly different, refuting the conventional wisdom that the wealthy are better managers of the environment. A variety of environmentally deleterious practices are associated with export-oriented cotton production, an activity more vigorously pursued by wealthy than poor farmers. Finally, the focus on poverty in international environment and development discourse has allowed the government of Mali to avoid a serious debate on the sustainability of cotton production. The study's findings are based on household interviews describing agricultural management practices, an analysis of farm field soil measures, and discussions with donors and national policymakers.
56 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the relationship between IK and wetland sustainability, focusing on the mechanisms through which IK evolves and how local adaptive capacity is built up, and argued that these mechanisms are key factors influencing adaptive capacity.
Abstract: Much research in recent years has addressed the contribution of indigenous knowledge (IK) to development initiatives in developing countries. An IK system that continuously evolves and adapts in response to environmental and socio-economic change is often considered to be at the core of sustainable natural resource management practices and rural livelihoods. In the context of indigenous wetland management in western Ethiopia, this paper examines the relationship between IK and wetland sustainability, focusing on the mechanisms through which IK evolves and how local adaptive capacity is built up. A series of participatory research activities undertaken in four wetland communities revealed spatial variations in the degree of innovation and communication taking place. The paper argues that these mechanisms are key factors influencing adaptive capacity, suggesting a key link between wetland sustainability and the occurrence of innovation and communication among communities.
TL;DR: In this paper, a team led by Dr Ben Horton of the University of Pennsylvania was awarded an SGER grant by the National Science Foundation to take exploratory research on the tsunami in Malaysia and Thailand.
Abstract: On the morning of 26 December 2004 large
areas of coastal southern Thailand were
transformed when a tsunami, generated by
a powerful submarine earthquake in the Indian
Ocean, swept ashore. Officially, there were 5395
confirmed deaths in Thailand with another 2932
people listed as missing.
In February 2005 a team led by Dr Ben Horton
of the University of Pennsylvania was awarded an
SGER grant by the National Science Foundation to
undertake exploratory research on the tsunami in
Malaysia and Thailand. This report summarizes the
preliminary conclusions of the social science
element of the Thai fieldwork. The team undertook
fieldwork in three main sites during July 2005: Koh
Lanta, Koh Phi Phi and Khao Lak. We chose Koh
Phi Phi as a small, tourist (backpacker)-oriented
island economy with high levels of damage and
casualties; Koh Lanta as a site with a significant
population of fisherfolk with a long presence in the
area; and Khao Lak as a mainland site with the
highest number of casualties in Thailand and with
a mixed tourism-fishing economy.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors studied the role of inter-annual variations in summer rainfalls, especially the late summer period (Jan-Mar), and rising water tables connected to Lake Titicaca.
Abstract: Landslides in the city of La Paz, Bolivia are complex in space and time. Their distribution within the city is differentiated by geographical variations in slope gradient, the nature of overlying surface deposits, and drainage density patterns. When mapped, the distribution of the most landslide-prone locations in the city coincides with the most mobile surface deposits on the higher and steeper slopes of the city. The timing of landslides is triggered when slope materials become saturated with moisture by rainfall, stream water, water seepage from high surrounding water tables, and from domestic sources. Landslide frequencies over the last 40 years show the role of inter-annual variations in summer rainfalls, especially the late summer period (Jan–Mar), and rising water tables connected to Lake Titicaca. Associations with ENSO events, both warm (El Nino) and cold (La Nina), prove negative, pointing to the importance of moisture sources from the north, south and east (Amazon) but not from the west (Pacific). The most vulnerable group exposed to the landslide hazard comprise the inhabitants of the self-built informal housing areas who occupy the more elevated steeper slopes of the northern part of the city. But societal vulnerability to earth movement in the city is widespread and interconnected. Higher income groups in the southern part of the city are affected by slower, if less dramatic, forms of land failure, and rich housing in downstream areas of the city are impacted by flash flooding encouraged by deforestation on the northern hill slopes where the poor live. Two case studies highlight the vulnerability and plight of the inhabitants of the self-built settlements in the aftermath of a major landslide, and a brief discussion of hazard mitigation and the importance of building hazard resilient communities concludes the paper.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors trace the development of this new understanding with reference to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in Peru, one of the most hazardous countries in South America, and highlight the need to build on this research to produce more inclusive, incultured and unified strategies of disaster mitigation at the local, national and international levels.
Abstract: Over the last 15 years there have been dramatic shifts in the consensus over how best to cope with natural hazards in economically developing regions such as South America. One very positive outcome of the United Nations sponsored International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR 1990–2000) has been that there is now greater interchange between the work of earth scientists examining the processes and mechanics of hazard occurrence and impact, and social scientists exploring the causes of human vulnerability to hazard – and thereby disaster. This paper traces the development of this new understanding with reference to earthquakes and volcanic eruptions in Peru, one of the most hazardous countries in South America. Particular focus is placed on the excellent progress currently being made by scientists in better understanding the physical dimensions of natural hazard exposure, and the ground-breaking work by social scientists in promoting new approaches to understanding and mitigating human vulnerability to disaster. The paper concludes by emphasizing the need to build on this research to produce more inclusive, incultured and unified strategies of disaster mitigation at the local, national and international levels.
TL;DR: This paper found significant variations in the forms of assistance relating to particular place-specific economic, social, and cultural geographies during the 2011 Indian Ocean Tsunami and found that these ranged from communities reliant upon a plethora of recognized international organizations to communities where forms of help were low profile and locally specific.
Abstract: transcript. Transnational social capital and networks are another critical area for further research. We found significant variations in the forms of assistance relating to particular place-specific economic, social and cultural geographies. These ranged from communities reliant upon a plethora of recognized international organizations to communities where forms of assistance were low profile and locally specific. In addition to the spectacular, tragic and obvious destruction, the tsunami event has produced numerous socially transformative challenges and opportunities that necessitate longer-term research engagement. We have tried to outline just some of these in this short summary paper.
TL;DR: In this paper, the importance of fodder trees in the definition of territorial strategies operated by herders in northern Cameroon, in the context of various herding systems (nomadic herding, agro herding using transhumance, and settled agro-herding).
Abstract: Extensive herding is an important activity in northern Cameroon, in terms of both the local social economy and local land management. However, this activity is strongly linked to the availability and accessibility of fodder resources. Due to territorial processes, such as land clearance and wood harvesting, this resource is receding and pasturelands are becoming fragmented. Herders are facing new challenges to secure their livelihoods, and, in this context, fodder trees are emerging as a key resource, allowing herds to subsist up to the end of the dry season. Increasingly, trees are playing a significant part in the herders' strategies to feed their herds in time and space and to 'root' their activities to particular lands. This trend requires an analysis of the importance of fodder trees in the definition of territorial strategies operated by herders in northern Cameroon, in the context of various herding systems (nomadic herding, agro herding using transhumance, and settled agro herding). A discussion of herding strategies needed to address the decreasing access to fodder resources highlights the problems of current extensive herding systems and leads to proposed alternatives.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors explore the complexity of forest governance in an era of decentralization and reveal a dizzying range of forest types and forms of use and governance within a fairly small portion of the country.
Abstract: There has been a huge surge in interest in the preservation of Madagascar's forests in the past two decades, but despite the investment of hundreds of millions of dollars, the goal remains elusive. Recent legislation has given the government the authority to enter into contractual arrangements with communities for the management of the country's public forests, so it has become crucial to grapple with the significant challenges involved. This paper explores the enormity of the challenge of forest governance in Madagascar in an era of decentralization. By examining several forests in one part of the country, it reveals a dizzying range of forest types and forms of use and governance within a fairly small portion of the country. These examples make it apparent that the history of forest management in Madagascar constitutes a broad-ranging experiment with forest governance. Simply monitoring the dynamics of the forest canopy is a significant technical challenge. However, this pales in comparison to the difficulties inherent in explaining those dynamics and assessing the sustainability and equity of different management regimes. Of the forests considered in the study, those where the Malagasy state has partnered with international conservation and development organizations seem to stand out, both in terms of stabilized, or even growing, forest cover, as well as a balance of interests among users.
TL;DR: In this paper, a portable OSL reader and/or measuring samples were provided by Simon Murphy (SUERC) and Peter Chung (University of Glasgow) for discussion on joint OSL work.
Abstract: Mineral Resources (DMR). We particularly thank the Director-General of the DMR, Mr Somsak Potisat, and the DMR's Chief of Foreign Affairs, Mr Sommai Techawan, for their support. We also thank the Royal Society of Edinburgh for an award under its International Exchange Programme for NC to visit Scotland for discussions on our joint OSL work. Simon Murphy (SUERC) and Peter Chung (University of Glasgow) provided invaluable assistance in building the portable OSL reader and/or measuring samples.
TL;DR: In this paper, the interrelationships between gender, agrobiodiversity, and the use of, and preferences for, improved and local crop varieties are examined in relation to rice, minor field crops, and home garden fruits and vegetables.
Abstract: Local geography and gender are two major factors determining which crop varieties are cultivated in a case study of two rural villages in Bangladesh This paper explores the interrelationships between gender, agrobiodiversity, and the use of, and preferences for, improved and local crop varieties These are examined in relation to rice, minor field crops, and home garden fruits and vegetables Reasons for both the displacement and the persistence of local varieties (LVs) are analysed in comparison to improved variety (IV) diffusion The research evaluates agrobiodiversity through the number, types, and varieties of crops grown in fields and home gardens The desired agroecological, economic, and cultural characteristics of crops grown document how respondents rank their variety preferences Variety preferences and the perceived importance of LV preservation are compared with what is actually grown The study indicates that there was little variation between villages in their approach towards the use of IV and LV rice; IVs were cultivated for their high yields and LV rice for taste and culinary uses However, there were significant differences in relative agricultural dependence between the two villages which led to unique variety preferences In both villages, women's preferences for IVs or LVs play a major role in crop choices, particularly as they manifest themselves in gendered domains of authority
TL;DR: In this article, the authors report on a study undertaken to comprehend the farmers' "informal" approach to soil fertility management, which is based on the use of a complex combination of traditional organic manures and "modern" inorganic fertilizers.
Abstract: Tin mining carried out on the Jos Plateau since the beginning of the last century has disturbed some 320 km2 of agricultural land. Formal attempts at reclamation of this land failed, but local farmers have developed a successful informal strategy for reclamation. This paper reports on a study undertaken to comprehend the farmers’‘informal’ approach to soil fertility management. Their soil fertility management practices centre on the use of a complex combination of traditional organic manures and ‘modern’ inorganic fertilizers that they have developed entirely on the basis of experimentation. A central focus of this paper is therefore the empirical knowledge base of the farmers and an assessment of any underlying scientific explanations for their strategies, including an analysis of their assertion that different brands of NPK fertilizers differ in their nutrient value. This discussion is followed by a consideration of the difficulties in accessing and understanding empirical knowledge. It is concluded that farmers’ knowledge and understanding of the values of different fertilizers and manures does have a scientific basis. It is argued that for further agricultural development to take place on the Jos Plateau, there must be synergy between farmers’ empirical knowledge (which has led to the development of successful and effective soil fertility management strategies, unlike the attempts of the local ‘scientific’ communities) and scientific knowledge (which can identify health and environmental hazards which may not be immediately visible to farmers).
TL;DR: In this article, the authors identify major patterns of economic activity and income sources among second-generation Moshav households and assess their future attitudes towards farming activities and choosing pluriactivity as a livelihood strategy.
Abstract: In the last few decades the rural space in Israel and its socio-economic components have steadily changed. The changes are attributed to long-term trends and processes common to many developed economies, such as a tremendous increase in the efficiency and intensity of production, the decline of agricultural employment, and the suburbanization of the countryside. The Moshav, a type of family farm-based settlement, has been a prime example of these changes. The transformation of the occupation pattern in farming households, through the adoption of a strategy of pluriactivity based on both agricultural and non-agricultural sources of income, has become a common development. The decline in agricultural employment has been partly compensated for by the penetration of non-agricultural land uses and increased commuting to urban centres of employment. At the same time, movement of people from urban areas to the Moshav, partly motivated by the relaxation of land policies, has brought about major changes in the demographic composition of rural areas and the settlement patterns themselves. The currently evolving occupational structure of the Moshav communities, especially among the second-generation households, raises questions about their future as agricultural settlements. By second generation, we mean the relatively younger households in the Moshav, in which the head of the household is no more than 40 years old. In most cases, their parents were settled in the Moshav by national authorities; in some cases, their grandparents were the first to be settled on the land, and operated a family farm. This group has shown a greater tendency to disassociate itself from agriculture in favour of non-agricultural income-generating activities, both inside and outside the settlement. Bearing that in mind, this paper has two major aims: to identify major patterns of economic activity and income sources among second-generation Moshav households; and to assess their future attitudes towards farming activities and choosing pluriactivity as a livelihood strategy. Before discussing the major issues of this paper, some theoretical background regarding rural occupational change and pluriactivity, in general, and the nature of the Moshav and the changes it has undergone in recent years, in particular, is reviewed.
Journal Article•
TL;DR: In this paper, a case study of Malawi and cross-country statistical comparisons is presented, concluding that in low-income, food-deficit countries population increase has reduced, in some areas nullified, advances in agricultural development.
Abstract: Attitudes to population policy taken by major international institutions display a lack of symmetry. Population-based institutions forcefully set out the effects of population on development and human welfare. In contrast, institutions and lobbies concerned with hunger, poverty and environment, brought together at the 2003 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, treat population growth as a given, independent, variable. This paper gives a land resources viewpoint. It includes a case study of Malawi and cross-country statistical comparisons. Official estimates of the extent of spare land, cultivable but not presently cultivated, are challenged. It is concluded that in low-income, food-deficit countries population increase has reduced, in some areas nullified, advances in agricultural development. Following the 1994 UN Conference on Population and Development in Cairo, a set of ethically acceptable measures for reducing population growth received general acceptance. All concerned with poverty, hunger and environment should follow the policy road from Cairo to Johannesburg. If greater efforts are not made to reduce rates of population increase, the targets of the Millennium declaration will not be met, and the suffering which these cause will continue. Statements about agriculture, food security, poverty and sustainability should recognize that population is not an external variable but an integral part of development.
TL;DR: In this paper, a theoretical framework and propositions for analysing tree integration in homestead farms are presented, with reference to southeast Nigeria, where the authors argue that, at the household level, livelihood strategies constitute the main determinant of the decision to integrate trees in a homestead farm, and induced innovation has a wider and more significant role at the community level than at a household level in encouraging the integration of trees in farms.
Abstract: This paper contributes to wider debates on the dominant factors determining the emergence and sustainability of intermediate systems of forest management in developing countries The theoretical framework and propositions for analysing tree integration in homestead farms are presented, with reference to southeast Nigeria The paper argues that, first, at the household level, livelihood strategies constitute the main determinant of the decision to integrate trees in homestead farms Secondly, induced innovation has a wider and more significant role at the community level than at the household level in encouraging the integration of trees in farms Thirdly, the sustainability of observed patterns of tree integration is influenced by the interaction of environmental, ecological, political, economic and social factors Based on these propositions, the paper analyses the internal (household) and external (wider community) factors influencing tree integration in homestead farms in southeast Nigeria