Showing papers in "The Indian Journal of Industrial Relations in 2012"

Relationship of Personal & Organizational Values with Organizational Commitment

Abstract: Introduction Job satisfaction plays an important role for an employee in terms of health and well being (Kornhaurser, 1965; Khaleque, 1981) and for an organization in terms of its productivity, efficiency, employee relations, absenteeism and turnover (Vroom, 1964; Locke, 1976; khaleque, 1984). Job satisfaction is a complex variable and influenced by situational factors of the job as well as the dispositional characteristics of the individual (Sharma & Ghosh, 2006). It can be captured by either a one dimensional concept of global job satisfaction or a multi faceted construct capturing different aspects of job satisfaction that can vary independently. Research examining the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance has been conducted since at least as early as 1945 (e. g., Brody, 1945) and methodology utilized has varied greatly. Some researchers used established scales to measure job satisfaction, while some developed their own. Some used self-report ratings to assess performance, while others used peer or supervisor ratings. The idea that job satisfaction leads to better performance is supported by Vroom's (1964) work which is based on the notion that performance is natural product of satisfying the needs of employees. The study relating to the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance has now become a research tradition in industrial-organizational psychology. The relationship between job satisfaction and job performance has been described as the "Holy Grail" of industrial psychologists (Landy, 1989). Many organizational theories are based on the notion that organizations that are able to make their employees happy will have more productive employees. Over the years, scholars examined this idea that a happy worker is a productive worker; however, evidence is not yet conclusive in this regard. Empirical studies have produced several conflicting viewpoints on the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. Strauss (1968) commented, "Early human relationists viewed the morale--productivity relationship quite simple: higher morale would lead to improved productivity". Siegel & Bowen (1971) and Bagozzi (1980) suggested that job performance leads to job satisfaction but not the reverse. Anderson (1984) indicated that autonomy and feedback from the job is significantly correlated with the performance. Keaveney and Nelson (1993) found a non-significant correlation coefficient between job satisfaction and job performance. Manjunath (2008) found job satisfaction of agricultural scientists significantly correlated with their scientific productivity. Ravindran (2007) found that job satisfaction is non-significantly correlated with job performance. There are conflicting viewpoints on the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. The proposed study is to synthesize the results of different studies relating to the relationship between job satisfaction and job performance. Meta-analytic Studies Petty et al (1984) provided a limited meta-analysis of the job satisfaction-job performance relationship. They confined their analysis to 16 studies that were published in five journals from 1964 to 1983. Higher and more consistent correlations between overall job satisfaction and performance were indicated than those previously reported. Relationships between job descriptive index measures of job satisfaction and performance were not as high or as consistent as those found between overall job satisfaction and performance. They reported a mean corrected correlation of 0.31 between the constructs. Laffaldano and Muchinsky (1985) analyzed 217 correlations from 74 studies and found a substantial range in satisfaction-performance correlations across the job satisfaction facets, ranging from a mean "true score" correlation of 0.06 for pay satisfaction to 0.29 for overall job satisfaction. For their primary analysis they averaged the facets performance correlations and reported an average true score correlation of 0. …

Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment: A Macro Perspective

Abstract: FDI: The Concept 'Capital and investments along with human resources are the essential hub of development' This statement has gained lot of importance in recent times FDI has been instrumental in economic growth of developed countries Almost every developed country has had the assistance of foreign finance to supplement its own meagre savings during the early stages of its development This has prompted India and other developing countries to reform their economic policies to attract FDI India, like many other countries, attracts foreign direct investment as an important element in their strategy because FDI is widely regarded as an amalgamation of capital, technology, marketing and management In the liberalization era, India is known to have attracted a huge quantum of FDI According to UNCTAD (2007) India has emerged as the second most attractive destination for FDI after China and ahead of the US, Russia and Brazil India has experienced a marked rise in FDI flows in the last few years, FDI inflows in to India has increased from $114 billion in 1990-99 to $37182 billion in 2009-10 FDI is the process whereby resident of one country (the home country) acquires ownership of assets for the purpose of controlling the production, distribution and other activities of a firm in another country (the host country) Balance of Payment Manual of IMF defined the FDI as a category of international investment that reflects the objective of obtaining a 'lasting interest' by a resident entity in one economy in an enterprise resident entity in another economy The 'lasting interest' implies the existence of a long relationship between the direct investor and the enterprise, and a significant degree of influence by the investor on the management of the enterprise RBI definition of FDI is more stringent since it excludes reinvested earnings, foreign equity listings, foreign subordinated loans to domestic subsidiaries, overseas commercial borrowings, financial listing, trade credits, grants, bonds, ADRs and GDRs whereas the IMF Guidelines include all these under FDI Thus there are differences in computation Focus & Framework The focus of this study is to analyze the behaviour of some selected micro and macro pull and push factors of FDI determinants The objective is to observe and analyse the dynamics of some selected FDI determinants in relation to the inflows and outflows as a consequence of economic reforms in India Different frameworks have evolved for analyzing the determinants of FDI An exceptionally flexible and increasingly popular one is the eclectic theory of John Dunning according to which the determinants of FDI could be considered on the basis of firm specific advantages, internalization advantages and countries' specific advantages These advantages may be termed as 'push factors' of the host countries Literature Survey Markusen and Maskus (1999), Love and Lage-Hidalgo (2000), Lipsey (2000), and Moosa (2000), highlight how the domestic market size and differences in factor costs can relate to locational FDI From the point of view of foreign investors this factor is important where the industries are characterized by relatively large economies of scale Labour cost which is one of the major components of the cost function deters FDI It is true for the firms, which engage in labour intensive production activities Studies by Kravis and Lipsey (1982) Wheeler and Mody (1990) Lucas (1993) Wang and Swain (1995) and Barrell and Pain (1996) found no significant negative relationship of wage and FDI Nonetheless there are other re searchers such as Morre (1993), Love and Lage Hidalgo (2000) who have found out that higher wages do not always deter FDI in all industries and have shown a positive relationship between labour cost and FDI Gostanga (1998) and Asiedu (2002) focus on policy reforms in developing countries as determinants of foreign direct investment inflows …

Recruitment & Selection Practices in Manufacturing Firms in Bangladesh

Abstract: Recruitment and selection is one the most important functions of human resource management (HRM). The present study aims at exploring differences and similarities between the public and private sector manufacturing firms of Bangladesh with respect to recruitment and selection practices, sources of recruitment, and selection devices. Data collected from twenty six public and thirty four private sector manufacturing firms show that the overall status of recruitment and selection practices of the private sector firms is significantly better than that of the public sector firms in Bangladesh. Some implications are also offered for the enhancement of the recruitment and selection practices of the public and private sector manufacturing firms of Bangladesh.

What Good is Bad Mentorship? Protégé's Perception of Negative Mentoring Experiences

Abstract: Introduction Mentorship dates back to ancient Greek mythology: Ulysses departed for the Trojan War only after entrusting his son Telemachus to his trusted friend Mentor, who was in fact Goddess Athena in disguise (Tickle, 1993). While the practice of mentorship is ancient, the word "mentor" meaning a trusted counselor or guide, was popularized by Francis Fenelon in his 1699 book, Les Aventures de Telemaque. The predominant focus of contemporary management research on mentoring has been on "outcome or criterion variables" (Scandura & Pellegrini, 2007: 7), more specifically as a positive experience for the protege, the mentor, and the organization. For the protege, mentoring is said to induce the feeling of having more power (Fagenson, 1988), greater job satisfaction (Fagenson, 1992), an accelerated learning curve (Eby & Lockwood, 2005), better promotion prospects and salary (Scandura, 1992; Ragins & Scandura, 1999), a reduction in stress (Blake-Beard, 2003), an affirmation of self-worth (Gibson, 2004), and better socialization (Johnson, 2007). Mentorship is also said to be beneficial for the mentor in that he is able to leave behind a legacy to a new generation of employees (Erikson, 1963), he is able to use his knowledge productively in order to assist the protege (Levinson, 1978), he receives gratification from peer recognition and gains loyal supporters (Vincent & Seymour, 1995, Eby & Lockwood, 2005), and that for female mentors, mentorship may facilitate career progress by breaking the glass ceiling (Parker & Kram, 1993). For the organization, the advantages are said to include the transmission of corporate culture and sense-making (Wilson & Elman, 1990), helping to redefine the organizational culture in times of crisis (Wilson & Elman, 1990), the creation of equal opportunity for all executives (Heery, 1994) and improved organizational communication (Singh, Bains & Vinnicombe, 2002). Other advantages include a smoother transition in the merging of two organizational cultures (Forret, Turban & Dougherty, 1996); the transference of knowledge, skills, and political connections (Sosik & Lee, 2002); an enhanced socialization of new employees (Singh et al., 2002); and the early identification of upcoming leaders (Perrone, 2003). So while the scholarship so far had been skewed towards the positive outcome variables of mentoring for the protege, mentor, and the organization, there are fewer studies pertaining to the darker side of mentoring. It was Kram's (1985) pioneering study that raised the possibility of destructiveness in mentoring relationships. Since then, a few studies on the negative and dysfunctional mentoring experiences have emerged, some from the mentor's perspective (Eby et al., 2008) and others from the protege's perspective (Eby & McManus, 2004). There are several reasons why it is imperative for researchers to delve deeper into understanding the darker side of mentoring. First, it is suggested that negative events have more of an impact on an individual than positive events (Baumeister et al., 2001), so much so that with regard to leadership, followers tend to recall negative events more than positive ones (Dasborough, 2006). Also, the consequences of negative mentoring for the protege can be far-reaching leading to personal damage (O'Neill & Sankowsky, 2001). Negative mentoring can lead to a protege cloning himself in the image of the mentor (Ragins & Scandura, 1997), or can lead to ingratiatory behavior (Scandura, 1998), to physical withdrawal in terms of absenteeism or turnover, loss of valuable career time and a sense of betrayal (Feldman, 1999) or can lead to decreased job satisfaction and increase in stress (Scandura, 1998; Eby & Allen, 2002). The scope of this paper is limited to the negative mentoring experiences, which may not necessarily lead to failure of the mentor-protege relationship (Eby et al. …

CSR Practices by SMEs in India: Lessons from Five Case Studies

Abstract: Background As elsewhere in the world, in India too the literature on Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is mostly centred on the initiatives of medium and large enterprises In reality, however, a large number of SMEs have been engaged in socially relevant activities which are beyond what could be considered as their immediate business pursuits Thus, the debate on CSR as also the promotional instruments has remained somewhat skewed towards the large scale sector in India The surmise that perhaps the SMEs lack resources to resort to socially relevant pursuits undermines the fact that, with over two million registered small scale industries in the country together contributing to almost 40% of the manufacturing GDP, SMEs constitute an overwhelmingly important segment of the Indian economy Most of them being anchored in towns and villages or in the remote areas SMEs have considerable adaptability to the local settings, exposure to local problems and also access to local resources They, thus, are eminently suited to pursue CSR Policy-makers and others thus would do well to give deserving recognition to what many SMEs are already doing in this regard in India as well as elsewhere It is also important that, with its agility and dynamism, the sector has displayed admirable innovativeness and adaptability to survive the recent economic downturn and recession CSR--Definition CSR, also called corporate conscience, corporate citizenship, social performance or sustainable responsible business etc, is a form of corporate self-regulation integrated into a business model CSR functions as a built-in, self-regulating mechanism whereby business monitors and ensures its active compliance with the spirit of the law, ethical standards, and international norms A universally acceptable definition of the term is yet to emerge in the evolving literature on CSR, however, its admitted goal has been to embrace responsibility for the company's actions and encourage a positive impact through its activities on the environment, consumers, employees, communities, stakeholders and all other members of the public sphere CSR-focused businesses would proactively promote the public interest by encouraging community growth and development and voluntarily eliminate practices that harm the public sphere, regardless of legality CSR is the deliberate inclusion of public interest into corporate decision-making or core business of a company and the honouring of a triple bottom line: people, planet, profit European Commission defines CSR as the company efforts to integrate social, environmental concerns in the business operations and in its interaction with its stakeholders on a voluntary basis CSR is a term that was created primarily by and for larger companies and hence is not necessarily a term that is well adapted to the world of SMEs Many SMEs have been doing things that could today be called CSR even if they do not know or use the term themselves In most cases it has been found less formal and more intuitive than by larger enterprises Because of their huge number as well as the vast regional spread, the challenge in India is to involve more SMEs to do more CSR Relevant SME Characteristics SMEs usually identify themselves closely wikth the region or town where they are located The social and environmental issues of concern to them will probably be local or regional in nature It is at this level that the positive impact of having a greater CSR participation can best be felt in economic, social or environmental terms SMEs from the same cluster or sector often face common social and environmental issues Addressing these issues collectively can reduce the costs of action and result in improvements that an individual SME acting alone cannot achieve SMEs are generally reluctant to seek publicity and it can be hard to find them willing to share their experiences in an open manner …

Development of a Measure of Employee Engagement

Abstract: Introduction The concept of employee engagement, despite receiving increased attention lately (e.g. Pati & Kumar, 2010; 2011a; Joshi & Sodhi, 2011) continues to remain as "one of the greatest challenges facing organizations in this decade and beyond" (Frank et al., 2004), as deepening disengagement amongst employees (Bates, 2004) becomes more explicit. These disengaged employees exhibit a passionless and uninterested attitude towards their work thereby bringing about a damaging impact on self, peer and organizational performance. Researchers have contended that organizations are unable to develop an engaged workforce and reap its promising benefits owing to the conceptual ambiguity surrounding the same (Macey & Schneider, 2008; Pati & Kumar, 2011b). Typically the construct of engagement has been confused with related organizational constructs (Hallberg & Schaufeli, 2006; Macey & Schneider, 2008; Pati & Kumar, 2011b) thereby leading to erroneous assessments and interventions. Further, till date only three academically grounded theories, viz. the Role Theory Approach (Kahn, 1990), the Burnout Approach (Maslach & Leiter, 1997; Schaufeli et al., 2002) and the Social Exchange Theory Approach (Saks, 2006) have tried to provide a theoretical anchor to the construct as well as develop validated measures for its assessment. However they are limited by their inadequacy in explaining the variation of engagement levels of employees across multiple tasks (Pati & Kumar 2011b). Moreover the extant theories conceptualize engagement as an attitude whose assessment is susceptible to social desirability bias (Green & Rao, 1971). Attitude scales have also been criticized for their inability to predict behaviour (Morrow, Jackson & Disch, 2006). Therefore, instruments that capture engagement as a behavioural construct are necessary for not only they provide a relatively objective measure of the construct, but also contribute towards setting a benchmark for positive workplace behaviour. Finally, the limited availability of validated measures of engagement and the maximal usage of the measure constructed by Schaufeli et al (2002) heralds the warning by Cook and Campbell (1976) on the potential construct under-representation. Thus, there is a need for development of multiple measures of the engagement construct to facilitate triangulation (Cook & Campbell, 1976) as well as high construct validity (Messick, 1995). A Behavioural Characterization of Engagement In order to account for the above mentioned limitations in the literature on employee engagement, Pati and Kumar (2011b) re-characterized engagement as "expressed empowerment pertaining to a role". Taking a behavioral perspective of engagement as well as employing a qualitative methodology, they argued that only psychologically enabled employees can be engaged which in turn manifests as Passionate Task Performance (PTP) and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB). Each of the above concepts is discussed below: Passionate Task Performance (PTP): Pati and Kumar (2011b) defined passionate task performance (PTP) as investment of discretionary effort in one's assigned task in order to bring out a different as well as self and organizationally beneficial outcome against scripted task performance. They delineated discretionary effort as investment of extra time, brainpower and energy (Towers-Perrin, 2003), in not just generating more of the usual (Macey & Schneider, 2008), but bringing about something different and beneficial. They argued that PTP is a tangible manifestation of "perceived meaningfulness" (Kahn, 1990) as well as "vigour" dimension of Schaufeli et al. (2002). Organizational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB): Although Saks (2006) had excluded OCB as a possible dimension of engagement on grounds of it being extra-role and voluntary behaviour, Pati and Kumar (2011b) argued for its inclusion as a dimension of engagement in recognition towards its significant contribution in lubricating the social machinery that facilitates the exhibition of discretionary behaviour or PTP. …

Organizational Commitment & Psychological Contract in Knowledge Sharing Behaviour

Abstract: Introduction Knowledge had become the most important kit for competition and survival under the business climate in 21st century (Ling 2003). While traditional economies used to rely on tangible assets such as land and capital, today's economy has evolved to treat knowledge as the primary production factor on which competitive advantage rests (Beijerse 1999). According to Peter Drucker (1993) "the only or at least the most important source of wealth in contemporary post-capitalist society is knowledge and information rather than capital or labour". Once created, knowledge cannot be imitated or substituted, which makes it a key strategic asset resource to all businesses (Cabrera & Cabrera 2002).The growing use of knowledge in businesses contributed to the emergence of the theory of knowledge management (Aranda & Fernandez 2002), which is currently one of the hottest topics in information technology and management literature. Sharing of existing knowledge contributes to the performance of organisations (Epple et.al. 1996). Knowledge sharing practices and initiatives often form a key component of knowledge management programs, in terms of organisational and individual learning (e.g., Alavi& Leidner 2001, Nahapiet & Ghoshal 1998, Nonaka 1994, Sveiby 1997). The organisational value of individual knowledge increases when it is shared (Styhre 2002). Storey and Quintas (2001:359) suggest that for knowledge management initiatives to be successful or effective requires that "employees are willing to share their knowledge and expertise". This assertion is supported by a significant number of empirical studies into knowledge sharing (Empson 2001, Flood et al 2001, Kim & Mauborgne 1998, Morris 2001, Robertson & O'Malley 2000). Studies have demonstrated that employees often resist sharing their knowledge (Ciborra & Patriota 1998) and knowledge does not flow easily even when an organisation makes a concerted effort to facilitate knowledge exchange (Szulanski 1996). Therefore, determining which factors promote and which impede the knowledge sharing behaviour of individuals within groups and organisations constitutes an important area for research. The present research was aimed to examine the impact of organizational commitment, psychological contract, and psychological contract breach on knowledge sharing behaviour. Knowledge Sharing Knowledge can be defined as a combination of experience, values, contextual information and expert insight that help evaluate and incorporate new experience and information (Gammelgaard & Ritter 2000). Knowledge exists in documents and repositories, as well it becomes embedded in people's minds overtime and it is demonstrated through their actions and behaviours. The process of knowledge management involves several activities. The most commonly discussed activity is knowledge transfer (Ford 2001). Knowledge sharing is critical to a firm's success (Davenport & Prusak 1998) as it leads to faster knowledge deployment to portions of the organization that can greatly benefit from it (Syed-Ikhsan & Rowland 2004). Traditional knowledge management emphasis was placed on technology or the ability to build systems that efficiently process and leverage knowledge. However, such technological infrastructure, while essential to knowledge capture and exchange, is only effective to the extent it is utilized in a continuous manner (O'Neill & Adya 2007). In order to make knowledge sharing happen within and among organizations, several researchers have focused on the study of different mechanisms and initiatives which could act as facilitators such as information and communication technologies (Dalkir 2005), whereas in other cases, personal interaction between individuals is the key (i.e. "people-focused" knowledge management) (Wiig 2004). But later it was realized that the effectiveness of the system is affected more by its users which led to the new model of knowledge management which involves people and actions. …

Communication Competence of Indian Engineers in IT & ITeS Sector

Abstract: Communication Skills for Business Professionals According to Peter Drucker, the ability to communicate well is essential for success and is perhaps the most important of all the skills an individual should possess. As business professionals move up the ranks of management they spend fifty percent more time speaking than in any other management activity (Rader & Wunsch 1980). Not only do they spend more time speaking, but their oral communication is seen as more vital to their success than other skills such as writing. Tom Peters (2010) says "Communication is everyone's panacea for everything". There is no denying the fact that effective communication is at the root of virtually all success which mandates that even engineers, scientists and technocrats need to translate their work into understandable communications so that it can be applied outside their own level of expertise. An unprecedented rush of information and communication technologies and expansion of international relations have resulted in the globalization of engineering education. The actual potential of an engineer implies not only his professional knowledge, but also a number of social-humanities skills. These traditionally fall into the category of soft skills while forming the social-humanities competence of an expert. These abilities include self-education, critical and lateral thinking, self-discipline and professional communication (Fofanov et al. 2010). Corporate demand for employees skilled in interpersonal communication is on the rise as organizational structures have become flatter and transformational leadership styles are fostered more and more. Organizations are working to recruit, promote, develop, and train transformational leaders who connect with employees emotionally and have verbal and coaching skills (Bass 1999, 1990). Numerous studies querying graduates, employers, and faculty members show communication skill as one of the top areas needing improvement among employees and new graduates (Maes, Weldy & Icenogle 1997, Morreale, Osborn & Pearson 2000). Reinsch and Shelby (1996) interviewed students with an average of 3.3 years work experience who were entering the Georgetown University Masters in Business Administration programme and found that their most challenging "workplace episodes were oral events, most of which required the creation or transmission of information". The students wanted to improve their abilities in a wide range of oral communication areas such as self-confidence, poise, explanatory skills, situational analysis and persuasion. They suggest that students want to develop these skills because it is a real need in the business world. Recently, Human Resource managers from Fortune 500 corporations included listening, speaking, team participation, and communication of information as most important for business school graduates in the 21st century (Porterfield & Forde 2001). Empirical research links social skills and other communication constructs with various organizational outcomes including job mobility (Kilduff & Day 1994), upward mobility, job level, and pay (Haas & Sypher 1991, Sypher & Zorn 1986), leadership ability (Flauto 1999) and general mental ability and job performance (Ferris, Witt & Hochwarter 2001). Sometimes communication skills are ignored or relegated to the back seat in favour of more mechanical emphasis on certification in the technical mechanisms of project management via the Project Management Programme and other certifications (Heisler and et.al 2000). He further emphasizes that the incorrect interpretation of communications is "the root cause of many project failures." In a report presented by FICCI (and prepared by ICRA) "The Skill Development Landscape in India and Implementing Quality Skills Training " at 3rd Global Skill Summit in 2010 it was found that a major skill gap existed among Indian engineering graduates, thus making a strong case for the engineering colleges and institutions to focus more on employability and quality. …

Work-Life Balance among Teachers of Technical Institutions

Abstract: Introduction In a society filled with conflicting responsibilities, chaotic roles and commitments, the balance between paid work and other activities of life has become a predominant issue at the workplace (Lockwood 2003). Organizations have attempted to ease this conflict by establishing work-family programs because employees' quality of work-life is becoming a business issue. With the rise in employment and complex patterns of work in the 21st century, human resource challenges are the biggest concern. Leading employers acknowledge that positive work-life outcomes for employees are key ingredients of a successful business strategy. In practice, improving the quality of work-life remains a tough task. Work pressures have intensified in the past decades. Evidence suggests that the average time spent on job has increased drastically. As a result, work dominates the personal life (Guest 2002). This imbalance of work-life relationships can lead to severe health problems and hamper job performance (Singh 2010). Integration of personal and professional life has increasingly become important due to the lifestyle in changing times, competition for growth and changing patterns of work, family and business. These issues are gaining momentum in the emerging markets (Joplin et al. 2003). In Asia, there has been a surge of work-life balance research in the fields such as medicine, nursing & IT (Malik, Saleem & Ahmad 2010, Singh 2010). At the same time there has been no evidence of teachers' stand in terms of work-life research. The present study addresses issues related to the work-life balance among technical teachers in India. Work-life balance has been a concern for all those interested in maintaining a fine balance between working life and its association with broader quality of life. The understanding of this delicate relationship can provide direct impact on person-organization fit. Hence, many organizations are in quest of increasing the standards of employees by improving their organizational commitment, enhancing job satisfaction levels and at the same time reducing the work related stress. According to Hart (1994) little work has been done to probe the role and the work relationships in determining the outcomes of work-life balance among the teachers. Further, the Indian education system, high on growth, however has its own challenges. One of the important reasons among them is related to the absence of skilled teachers. Hence, the main concern for this study is to provide information and implementation which enable the administrators to respond to the changing needs of employees and ensuring WLB. Review of Literature The term 'Work-Life balance'(WLB) has gained popularity in English language research and policy matters, facilitating the understanding of non-work concerns with the employment (Gregory & Milner 2009). According to them, WLB is the relationship between the institutional and cultural time and space of non-work and work in societies where income plays a major role. It is generated and distributed through labor markets. Traditionally work-life balance has been seen through the lens of women employment. Later on it broadened its horizons to men's and women's negotiation of the demands from paid employment and personal and domestic life. This concern has changed from the work-family to the work-life interface. Guest (2002) argues about the nature of work-life balance, considers why it is an issue of contemporary interest and examines the concept of balance and its implications for the study of the relationship between work and the rest of life. Guest (2002) also analyzed the model outlining the causes, nature and consequences of more or less acceptable work-life balance. The topic is linked to the field of work and organizational psychology and a number of theoretical concepts and issues relevant to research in Europe were raised in the article. Fleetwood (2007) discusses the inevitable connection between WLB and other kinds of flexible working practices, and then discharge these practices. …

Determinants of Talent Retention in BPO Industry

Abstract: Introduction Today's organizations are increasingly afflicted with the issues concerning talent shortage. The shortage in skilled workers is across the spectrum--from personal assistants and call-centre operators to researchers, engineers and accounting staff. Managers and administrators have realized that having capable staff is a competitive advantage. Efficient and productive workforce makes an organization not only survive but flourish too. With this understanding comes in view the rapidly increasing focus on retaining key talent, which represents the total of the inherent abilities, acquired knowledge, capabilities and skills. Inarguably, diversity in workforce--age, sex, qualifications, experience, competence, perception, quality etc.--has brought up more, not fewer retention issues. While a small number of employees leaving an organization is natural and acceptable, high turnover is considered a matter of serious concern. High employee turnover can be seen in almost all the sectors but it is certainly alarming in BPOs, especially in ITeS (a whopping 35-50%). In an extremely competitive market, it has become imperative for organizations to look into the causes of high employee attrition and come up with a strategy for retaining one's talented pool of employees. Increased attrition levels need to be monitored and managed carefully as they eventually affect the overall performance of the firm. The focus clearly needs a shift from recruitment to retention. Another important reason for organizations to retain their employees and curb employee turnover is the costs attached to it. The combined direct and indirect costs associated with one employee leaving the organization ranges from a minimum one year's pay and benefits to a maximum of two years' of pay and benefits including the loss of corporate memory, affecting productivity, profitability, product and service quality, negatively affecting employment relationships, morale and workplace safety. (Prakash & Chowdhury, 2004). The problem of low employee retention can be addressed through a variety of proactive retention strategies, workplace policies and practices which would not only help offset negative impact of low retention but also work proactively to increase employee retention. There is strong evidence in the literature that creative and productive employees usually look for a change and their retention is positively associated with not-so-obvious factors which are perceived under the usual control of management. This research attempts to identify determinants of talent s' retention in BPO (ITeS) sector. Rationale of Study Globalization has forced multinationals outsource their production and services to countries where they find a competitive advantage in lower labor costs. Global outsourcing now occurs for all types of jobs and across most industries (Gomez-Mejia et. al, 2010). The Indian BPO sector's growth and increasing maturity is reflected across multiple dimensions. In just over a decade, the industry has grown to reach nearly US$ 11 billion in export revenues, employs more than 700,000 people, and accounts for more than 35 percent of the worldwide BPO industry. Comparing past growth trends with the significant future market opportunity, the Indian BPO industry can set itself a stretch target of US$ 50 billion (nearly fivefold its present size) in export revenues by 2012. This gigantic leap in the Indian BPO market due to high growth in IT sector is likely to add nearly 2.5 percent directly to India's GDP from exports earnings and provide direct employment to about 2 million people. (Nasscom data 2010) However, this sunrise sector is struggling with containing high employee attrition, which if is left un-checked, shall have far reaching depressing implications on overall industrial growth of Indian economy as the BPO sector constitutes a sizeable part of Indian service industry, emerging propeller of the nation's financial system. …

Decoupling Natural Resource Use & Environmental Impacts from Economic Growth

Abstract: RESOURCES MOBILIZATION THROUGH SHGs IN URBAN VILLAGES by Chittaranjan Dash, Concept Publishing Company (P) LTD, New Delhi, 2012, xxvi+186, Price Rs 550 (Hardbound) This book forms the substance of a survey research conducted in 2008 with a view to ascertain the impact of micro --finance in the context of enclave and peripheral urban villages in Delhi. The objectives of the study are: 1) to analyze the pattern of socio--economic and educational status of SHGmembers, 2) to investigate the economic profile of SHG members, 3) to evaluate the impact assessment of micro finance through credit and asset structure, 4) to measure the role of NGOs for implementation of micro finance, and 5) to augment the strategy for better implementation of micro finance. In the nineties, National Bank for Agriculture Rural Development (NABRDs) pilot scheme--micro finance --was launched to bridge the gap between the demand for and supply of funds in the lower rungs of rural economy. The Indian micro finance scene is dominated by Self-Help Group (SHGs) which were formed with the initiative of NGOs with 10-20 members and work as economic unit. The phenomenal out reach of SHG-bank linkage programme has enabled an estimated 86 million poor households to gain access to microfinance (India 2011). The data was generated through an interview schedule and participatory observations by the members of the SGHs with the help of NGO staff and local people from the enclave and peripheral villages.110 SGHs were covered, 52 from enclave villages and 58 from peripheral villages. In all 219 group members, 104 and 115 women from the enclave and peripheral villages respectively were interviewed. The data was analyzed statistically. The demographic status of the SHG members indicates that a majority of group members were in the age group 21-50 years. The average age of the sample members is 37.8 years, the average number of children per woman is 2.73 and the average household size is 4.9. Married women constitute 90 percent of the sample. There are also a few widows. There are unmarried members also in the enclave villages. Majority of the members have qualification of matriculation, at the same time, there are also some illiterates. A majority of the sample population has nucleus family, and own pacca houses. A majority of them were born outside Delhi. Some members came to Delhi through marriage while some others came along with their parents or husbands. Abut 44.29 percent of members joined the SHGs during 2007 and 2008. The motivation to Join the SHGs was provided by NGOs, neighbors, friends and relatives. Family has least role in inducing members to join SHGs. A majority of the SHGs were of the size of 20 members. Majority of members are home makers. In the enclave villages some members are services holders while in peripheral villages it is professional work, shop keeping, and dairy business. Less than half of the sample have annual income between Rs.30,000/- and Rs. 60,000/-. The average annual income of SHG members stands at Rs. 71,326. The peripheral village members have relatively more income. The average annual expenditure stands at Rs.60, 798. The level of surplus of SHG members comes to Rs. 10,528. The villages that are nearer to centers with civic amenities are in advantageous position than those which are farther. Group credit plays an important role at the grass root, and its absence is a cause of concern for the society. A majority of group members have availed credit, out of which a good number of them have availed credit from intra-group. In the enclave villages, it is for social purpose, while in peripheral villages it is for social and cattle related activities. The average annual return is higher in peripheral villages than in enclave villages. …

Entrepreneurship & Global Competitiveness: A Study on India

Abstract: Background At the time of independence of India, the idea of rapid industrialisation of the economy had gained strong support from the policy makers. The ownership pattern consisted of three different types: (1) exclusive ownership of government, (2) the private sector; and (3) the joint sector. The Industrial (Department and Regulation) Act (IDR Act) was enacted in 1951. Though the government wanted to boost industrialisation, the IDR Act, with licensing powers in the hands of the government to regulate the pattern of industrial development in the country, proved itself to be the major obstacle towards reaching the objectives. "The bureaucracy acquired unprecedented powers and authority over all kinds of industrial activities and industrial entrepreneurs felt that they were placed at the mercy of ... bureaucrats" (Government of India 2002: 151). The Industrial Policy Resolution 1956 recorded 17 industries (for example, railways, air transport, iron and steel, atomic energy, arms and ammunition etc.) to be exclusively reserved for the public sector; 12 other industries envisaged to be state owned but also open for the private sector to supplement the efforts of the State; and the rest remained open for the private sector (although the option of state's participation remained open). Another round of reservation policy was initiated in 1967 with 47 items reserved for the small-scale sector, which was expanded to 504 items by 1978. In 1978, the reservation list was recast into NIC codes (National Industrial Classification of all economic activities) which again expanded items for the small-scale sector to 807. Since then, from time to time some items have been added to the list and also some items have been deleted from the list. However, since 1991, India has been liberalising its economy with delicensing as one of its main agenda, and today only five industries (alcoholic drinks, tobacco, defence equipments, industrial explosives including detonating fuses, gunpowder etc., and hazardous chemicals) have been retained under compulsory licensing of the IDR Act 1951. As far as foreign participation and international competition in this connection are concerned, this can be well-understood from the Second Report of the National Commission on Labour (Government of India 2002: 139) where it observed: "In the early years, Indian industry thrived within protective tariff walls. The policy was to encourage Indian industries and though foreign technical collaborations were encouraged, direct foreign investment in any corporate body was restricted to 40%. In 1991, this policy was changed completely and foreign majority investment was encouraged in a variety of industries, import restrictions were removed, customs tariff was brought down and the doors of the Indian economy were opened for foreign competition". Protection for small-scale industries has been grossly abandoned after the initiation of new economic policy in 1991. At present, there are only 21 items that are exclusively reserved for manufacture in the small-scale sector. Random de-reservation has been vehemently criticised by many scholars and activists. They argue that while such de-reservation has increased the scope for greater investments in manufacturing of various items by the formal sector, the new policy has posed tremendous threats to the large population engaged in the unorganised as well as informal sectors. One must agree with the view that the growth of entrepreneurship in the formal sector may be interrupted if large sections of population are either unemployed or living under the threat of losing livelihoods, and possess low level of skill and education, and have fragile health. Unless such problems are addressed through proper policy measures, the poor will continue to face barriers in reaping the fruits of industrial growth. Thus, very low level of living of a large population does not satisfy at least one initial condition (Myrdal 1968) of economic development and thus may hamper the existing industries to grow to their full extent on the one hand and constrain, to some extent, the flow of new entries of firms into the regional industrial sector on the other. …

Economic Growth & Human Development: The Experience of Indian States

Abstract: Introduction In 1990 the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) brought out the first Global Human Development Report under the leadership and inspiration of Mahbub Ul Haq. The Report stressed that the real wealth of a country is its people and the purpose of development is to create an enabling environment for them to enjoy long, creative and healthy lives. Human development is defined as the process of enlarging people's choices. In principle, these choices can be infinite and change over time. But at all levels of development the most critical and essential ones are for people to lead a long and healthy life, to be educated and to have access to resources needed for a decent standard of living. If these choices are not available, many other opportunities remain inaccessible (UNDP 1990, 1993, 1997). Based on Indian empirical evidence, this paper explores the link between economic growth and human development by identifying two chains, one from economic growth to human development, and the other from human development to economic growth. The results indicate that, there is a widening inter-regional disparity in human development over a long period of time. In the liberalization period, the states are showing a tendency of convergence rather than divergence in terms of human development. Further, the empirical analysis on the relationship between public expenditure on human development indicates a positive relationship between these variables. The influence of public expenditure on human development is higher than that of economic growth. The empirical evidence is in support of higher public expenditure on health and education in order to attain higher human development. Objectives of the Study The present study focused mainly on following objectives: 1. To examine the chain relationship between economic growth and human development. 2. To examine the effect of economic growth on human development in Indian situation 3. To insight and support the role and influence of public expenditure on human development. Methodology & Data Sources The data for the study has been collected mainly from the secondary sources. The study is descriptive and analytical in nature. Data was collected from various published sources such as UNDP Human Development Reports, World Development Reports, various issues of Economic Survey, National Human Development Report 2001, Karnataka Human Development Report 2005 and Meghalaya Human Development Report 2008. The study analyzed the inter-state disparities inhuman development in terms of Human Development Index (HDI) and Gender Related Development Index (GDI) with the help of Coefficient of Variance. In addition to this, two-way relationship between economic growth and human development of 15 major Indian states has been examined with the help of the following formula. HDI = [[??].sub.0] + [[??].sub.1] [D.sub.1] + [[??].sub.2]T + [[??].sub.3] Gr + [[??].sub.4] Ee + [[??].sub.5] He + ut Where HDI = Human Development Index for the periods of 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2005 [D.sub.1] = Dummy variable for the initial achievement T = Time variable Gr = Growth rate for the periods 197071 to 1979-80, 1980-81 to 198990 and1990-91 1999-2000 and 2010-11 Ee = Expenditure on education for the periods of 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011 He = Expenditure on health for the periods of 1981, 1991 2001 and 2011 Ut = Disturbence term We are considering HDI, education and health dimensions for the period 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2005 for the 15 major states in India. Hence the data exhibits the characteristics of time series as well as cross sectional information. However, the time period is limited to only for the four decades and hence considered to be restrictive time series. Further, to predict the initial achievements in human development, dummy variables are introduced. …

Five Factor Model of Personality & Role Stress

Abstract: Introduction Stress in the workplace is increasingly a critical problem for employees, employers and for the organization as a whole, but it is inevitable and a necessary part of life (Doublet, 2000). Empirical researches in this area have demonstrated the direct and indirect costs of stress on individual employee's performance and performance of organization as a whole (Ortqvist & Wincent, 2006). Studies also indicate that the amount of experienced role stress is partly depended on the personality predispositions of the employee concerned (Keenan & McBain, 1979). Present study attempts to investigate the relationship between five factor model of personality and role stress. Interest in occupational role stress has grown considerably since Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn & Rosenthal (1964) classic study of role stress. Within an organizational context, the term 'role' can be defined as a set of expectations applied to the incumbent of a particular position by the incumbent and by role senders within and beyond an organizational boundary (Banton, 1965). Role stress originate when an individual in a particular work role is torn by conflicting job demands or doing things he/she does not think are part of the job specification (Cooper & Marshall, 1976). Role conflict, role ambiguity, role overload are widely examined individual stressors and there is a large body of literature(House & Rizzo, 1972; Mc Grath, 1976; Schuler, Aldag & Brief, 1979; Fisher & Gitelson, 1983; Jackson & Schuler, 1985; Newton & Keenan, 1987; Luszczynska & Cieslak, 2005). Since the 1960s, more than 300 articles have been published on role stress or one of its three dimensions; role conflict, as the discrepant role expectations sent by members/outstanding persons of an individual's role set, role ambiguity, as the degree of vagueness, ambiguity in desired expectations that creates difficulties for a person to fulfil requirements, and role overload, as the extent to which time and resources prove inadequate to meet expectations of commitments and obligations to fulfil a role. The diversity of journals where the articles are published suggests that similar concepts are tested over and over again in different contextual settings and on different actors performing different roles. Studies in India have also attempted to establish the degree of association or causal relationships of stress with other variables such as organizational, job, leadership, communicational and personal factors (Pestonjee, 1992). Pareek (1993) has pioneered work on role stress by identifying as many as ten different types of organisational role stresses namely: Inter Role Distance (IRD), Role Stagnation (RS), Role Expectation Conflict (REC), Role Erosion (RE), Role Overload (RO), Role Isolation (RI), Personal Inadequacy (PI), Self-role Distance (SRD), Role Ambiguity (RA), and Resource Inadequacy (RIN). Role Stress & Personality Role stress can arise from different patterns of mismatch in expectations, resources, capability and values about the role. In this matching process personality factors act as the conditioning variables. A person's personality affects how that person experiences and copes with stress. It is generally believed that the competitive, aggressive and anxious people are more prone towards experiencing stress (Ivancevich et al., 1982; Cooper, Dewe & O'Driscoll, 2001). Spector (1982) has made the point that personality variables play an important role in the understanding of a range of behaviours at the workplace. Researchers offer a range of frameworks relating personality and the stress that a person experiences. Hart (1999) developed a model for linking personality to work, non-work, and life satisfaction. Bolger and Zuckerman's (1995) framework illustrates how personality affects both the exposure and reactivity to stress, health and physiological outcomes. O'Brien and Delongis (1996) suggest that personality and situational factors play an important part in three forms of coping responses; problem, emotion, and relationship focused. …

Impact of Emotional Labour on Teaching Effectiveness: A Study of Higher Education in India

Abstract: Introduction Seminal work has been done in the field of Emotional Labor (EL) performed in higher education. A small number of cases in which it has been researched is in the feminist literature especially pertaining to health care units and other service sectors. Further, research activities on EL are grounded on the traditional service sector (Bagilhole &Goode 1998, Sachs & Blackmore 1998, Bellas 1999, Hort et al. 2001). However, recent research has also expanded to masculinity literature (Mann 1997, Harris 2002, Strongman & Wright 2008). For the purpose of this paper, the belief that higher education is operating in the managerialism paradigm is advocated (White Paper 2003). This implies that B-schools in India are turning out to be business houses. In the light of this assumption, Willmott (1995) had asserted that the student is perceived as a customer and the degree awarded by a university is perceived as a passport to the corporate world. Thus, the role of the academics is that of a service provider who treats students as customers. Extensive research on service organizations has emerged with the finding that employees should perform as a customer/provider interface and it is a means to gain competitive advantage. The customer driven system even demands that teaching staff perform EL so that negative emotions are under control, and not let the customers feel disgruntled. They expect its performance at the time of the execution of duties, thereby, adding value to the teaching and learning activity being experienced by the customers (students). The employee's behaviour requires "emotional labour" (Hochschild 1983) where employee behaves as a front line manager not the management, has to either conceal or manage actual feelings for the benefit of a successful service delivery. Teaching staff, in higher education, are expected to perform EL in order to achieve the dual outcomes. This signifies that the generated outcomes are perceived as customer (Gibbs 2001) satisfaction, and profit for the management. The effect of EL can also be extended to teaching effectiveness. The present study aims at linking EL with teaching effectiveness. Managerialism Managerialism has emerged from critical literature (Willmott 1995, Mok 1997, Giroux 1999, Simkins 2000, Meyer 2002, O'Brien& Down 2002) which has thrown light on the changing paradigm of education institution where they are focusing on quality, efficiency, effectiveness, predictability and substitution of human technology with non- human technology (Ritzer 1993). The whole transformation of education institution to service provider encompasses formal and external inspection including evaluation of teaching and research paired with resource and financial implications. It is also called McDonalisation of education signifying standardization and control in higher education (Ritzer 1996). It emphasizes on the ideology of rationalization where the education institution fosters the rationalization of workplace and rationalized homes (Ritzer 1993). The education institute believes that student being customer it remits the message that the university has become part of the corporate agenda (Willmott 1995). It has transformed the degree into a commodity, in other words known as a "meal ticket". Further, the role of the academician is that of a service provider who treats the student as a customer as she (the academic) aims to receive excellent ratings, and thus continued tenure and research funding. Maaret Wager (2001) in a paper presented at a higher education conference informs us that more and more measures of performance serve to control and coerce academics. This kind of transition of role from academician to service provider generates incongruent demand within a role theory paradigm. Inside this conceptual framework, conflict manifests as the service provider violates the requirement of one role while fulfilling the demands of the other (Varca 2009). …

Transformational Leadership: The Link between P-O Fit, Psychological Contract & Signature Experiences

Abstract: Introduction No organization can do better than the people it has, because more than physical, technical or financial resources, human resources are particularly difficult to emulate (Lado & Wilson 1994, Wright & McMahan 1992). A study conducted by McKinsey and Company in 1997, dubbed as the 'War for Talent', predicted, that the most important corporate resource over the next 20 years would be talent: smart, sophisticated business people who are technologically literate, globally astute, and operationally agile. Subsequent McKinsey Quarterly global surveys (the first conducted in 2006 and the second in 2007) further reaffirmed the trend and revealed that finding and retaining talented people was the single most important managerial preoccupation. Although there has been an unequivocal consensus amongst scholars and practitioners that people are an important asset organizations also recognize that winning the war for talent means more than simply attracting people to the company. It is about attracting the 'right people'. Employees are an asset only when their work values are in alignment with organizational purpose and when they are emotionally and intellectually engaged with organizational objectives. If not rightly selected, employees could be an organization's biggest liability as well. As Sloan said: If we didn't spend four hours on placing a man and placing him right, we'd spend four hundred hours on cleaning up after our mistakes. Understandably, organizations are increasingly realizing the need for attracting the 'right people' (Collins 2001). There has been considerable research in the fields of organizational behaviour and human resource management, on person-organization fit (P-O) or congruence between the characteristics of individuals and the organization, emphasizing the extent to which a person and the organization share similar characteristics and/or meet each other's needs (Kristof 1996). Research has indicated that the degree of fit between the person and the organization is related to both employee retention and psychological contract (Rousseau & McLean Parks 1992, Behery 2009). Psychological contracts comprised the obligations that employees believe their organizations owe them and the obligations the employees believe they owe their organizations in return. Fulfilment of the psychological contract contributes to positive outcomes such as commitment, organization citizenship behaviour, engagement, and intention to remain. Increasingly, firms differentiate themselves from their competitors by strengthening employees' psychological contract with the organization. Studies have examined the relationship between person-organization fit and psychological contract. It has been found that employee fit with the job and with the organization, is affected by the failure of an employer to fulfil employee expectations (Behery 2009). Findings strongly suggest that employees in organizations which strive for P-O fit, and in which new entrants have a positive perception of the PC in the pre-entry phase, are more likely to continue to experience these fits after they enter the organization. This post-entry fit, in turn affects their subsequent work attitudes and behaviours. Given the role of person-organization fit as well as psychological contract, organizations are increasingly looking at their socialization processes to enhance positive role-behaviours and attitudes at work. However not sufficient research effort has been done to examine the mechanisms which could increase employee-fit and psychological contract. In this paper we present the role of signature experiences in creating POF by communicating a clear message to potential recruits about the unique values of the organization and what it stands for. Using signalling theory as the theoretical foundation, the paper examines the linkages between signature experiences and psychological contract. Psychological Contract The employee-organization relationship is quintessentially a contract for exchange of resources between two parties--employees and employers. …

Entrepreneurship Education & Culture of Enterprise: Relevance & Policy Issues

Abstract: Introduction Entrepreneurship is a remarkable force that has a huge impact on facilitating growth and societal progress of a nation. It involves innovation, employment generation and social empowerment. Education in the area of entrepreneurship may help people to develop skills and knowledge, which could benefit them for starting, organizing and managing their own enterprises. About 12 per cent of the world's population in the age range of 1864 years is constituted by entrepreneurs of one or the other kind. Level of entrepreneurial activity has increased over 50 per cent between 2001 and 2002 and this rise comes amidst a decline of 25 per cent in the global average during this time period. About two-thirds of the entrepreneurs are men and one-third is women with the largest representation from the age-group of 25-44 years (Reynolds et al, 2001). Among the Asian countries, India, China and Thailand demonstrate relatively high degrees of new technology in entrepreneurship (Niels et al, 2007). An adequate provision for education is one of the important requirements for a nation's development (Gopalkrishna & Rao, 2012). Initiating one's own venture has never been an easy task, however, a formal training could help a person to move ahead with proper planning. Therefore entrepreneurship education is gaining much momentum in recent times. Educational institutions imparting formal and textual education may not be in a position to offer any assurance to get access to employment in the formal job market. In such situation, entrepreneurship education is extremely important as it encourages innovation, fosters job creation, and improves global competitiveness. The nature of emerging economic entities and the new business creation provides the structures within which individuals acquire most of their economic resources in addition to social recognition. Education, training and work experience are considered to be the most common indicators of human capital, associated with the success of entrepreneurs. Against this backdrop the present paper aims at analyzing the importance of entrepreneurship education in India. There would be an attempt to understand how the policies can be intervened to strengthen the entrepreneurial spirits among the students. Contemporary Relevance Human capital is one of the major contributing factors for the growth and development of any nation. The role of entrepreneurs in creating new enterprises is of crucial importance. Indian economy needs to enhance the level of innovation, creativity and the spirit of entrepreneurship in order to confront the global competitiveness. It is important to mention that only accumulation of knowledge and information does not solve the purpose of disseminating entrepreneurial spirit among the students. If the framework of knowledge can transform the structure and future of the concerned organization in a positive direction then only one can be convinced about the appropriate utilization of knowledge. Hence the success depends upon how the knowledge is utilised in what direction and for what purpose. Age, gender, work status, education, income, and perceptions are all significant socio-economic factors for an individual's decision to start a business. People with post-secondary or graduate education are more involved in early-stage entrepreneurial activity (Niels & Hardin, 2006). The National Sample Survey Organization (NSSO) shows the decadal increase in unemployment rate in India. The figure of unemployment has increased by one million between 2000-01 and 2001-02. An increasing unemployment rate i.e. 9.2% and under-employment in India emphasize the importance of entrepreneurial activities in the country (NSSO, 2004). The Planning Commission report also strongly recommended self-employment as a wayout for the problem of unemployment (Planning Commission, 2002). India has emerged as the second most entrepreneu -rially active nation among the 37 nations which account for 62% of the world's population. …

Job Involvement as a Key Component of Work Motivation: Search for Predictors

Abstract: Introduction There is a long-standing interest in studies on the subject of job involvement because it has been found to result in several positive consequences. Earlier, it used to be studied as an aspect of work motivation but in more recent times it is studied as an integral component of employee engagement construct. Job involvement has been found to be linked to turnover (Baba & Jamal, 1991; McElroy et al., 1999); absenteeism (Diefendorff et al., 2002); performance (Freund, 2005; Van Dyne & Pierce, 2004); and employee's readiness for change (Madsen, Miller & John, 2005). Pfeffer (1994) has considered job involvement as a fundamental basis for establishing competitive advantage in business markets and has asserted that increasing job involvement can enhance organizational productivity and effectiveness. Dimitriades (2007) has demonstrated the effect of service climate and job involvement on customer-oriented organizational citizenship behavior OCB of frontline employees of Greek service organizations. Emery & barker (2007) have found that job involvement of customer-contact personnel is significantly correlated with customer satisfaction, profit and productivity. In a study of 131 professors and clerical employees of a private Japanese University, Ueda (2011) found that job involvement had a significant positive relationship with civic virtue and helping behavior of employees. What is Job Involvement? Job involvement has been defined and described variously by different scholars. Some of these versions are listed below: * It involves the internalization of values and importance of work in the life of an individual employee. It is manifested in the following ways in the response of an employee with high job involvement: (a) the extent to which the employee's expectations about work are met; (b) the way in which an employee expresses job involvement varies from person to person; (c) feeling a high sense of duty; and (d) avoiding being absent from work and feeling guilty about unfinished work. --Lodahl & Kejner (1965) * Job involvement refers to an employee's identification to his/her job in terms of the degree to which one is cognitively preoccupied with, engaged in, and concerned with the job in hand. --Kanungo(1982) People with high job involvement focus most of their attention on their job. --Hackett et al. (2001) * Job involvement refers to the extent to which individuals are preoccupied with and immersed in or absorbed by their work activity. --Diendorff, Brown, Kamin & Lord (2002) * Job involvement refers to the degree to which an employee psychologically relates to his or her job and the work performed therein. --Cooper-Hakim & Visweswaran (2005) * Individuals who identify most strongly with their jobs focus their thoughts on work and interpret more situations as opportunities to perform work role activities. --Kreiner et al. (2006) * Job involvement refers to the extent to which individuals identified the importance of the job to their total self-image and self-esteem. --Chughtai (2008) Implicit in the foregoing definitions of job involvement are two basic principles, namely, (a) internalization of a positive work ethics that is reflected in a high sense of duty towards one's work; and (b) the job is so designed that it satisfies the intrinsic needs of the worker. When these two conditions are met, the worker is likely to identify himself with the job both cognitively and emotionally. The job performance of such workers contributes not only to the growth of the organization but also to the enhancement of their level of satisfaction, sense the pride, and self-esteem. The 5-item questionnaire used in the present study incorporates the basic ingredients of the construct described in this section. …

Unionization & Collective Bargaining in the Unorganized Sector

Abstract: Introduction Globalisation and the breaking down of trade barriers have been almost invariably associated in every country with: * Higher levels and faster rates of economic growth. * Critical levels of competition which compel organizations and countries to pare down costs through outsourcing, casualization and innovations. * Employment growth, primarily in the unorganized or informal sector. The evidence from many countries indicates that formal or organized employment has either stagnated or actually shrunk and non-regular or nonstandard work has grown. While the first two consequences have helped economies and consumers, the growing army of the informal sector workforce has created a new consciousness about their working conditions and the growing inequalities between worker groups in many countries. For instance, working hours in this sector are about 1214 hours a day (NCEUS 2009: para 6.64). This is part of the new consciousness about inclusive growth and whether unionization among them and negotiated settlements can ameliorate their plight. The International Labour Organisation, which is observing the decade of Decent Work in Asia comments: "another frontier for collective bargaining lies in the complex challenges associated with improving the working conditions of nonregular and/or migrant workers.... A number of examples from India illustrate how the social partners are using collective bargaining to address the needs of these workers" (ILO 2009: 15). The National Commission on Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector (NCEUS 2009: Table 2.7) estimates that in 2008-09, informal sector in India employed, in agriculture 219 million, in industry 66 million, and in services 101 million, totalling 386 million out of a workforce of 450 million. Between 1993-94 and 2004-05 the net growth of employment had been largely of an informal kind, implying that these workers were vulnerable in significant ways. This is true of both formal and informal sectors and significantly greater in manufacturing. The NCEUS Report (Table 2.4) uses both NSSO and DGET data to indicate that informal employment in the formal sector (private and public) constituted more than 20 million in 1993-94, growing to 25 million by 1999-00. Hence this manpower would add to the 386 million estimated. Before this can be analysed it is necessary to identify the unorganised sector, to quantify it and to spell out the large variety of work and employment relationships within this broad category. Defining the Unorganised /Informal Sector According to the NCEUS the Informal Sector "consists of all unincorporated private enterprises owned by individuals or households engaged in the sale and production of goods and services operated on a proprietary or partnership basis and with less than ten total workers". Unorganized workers are, 'a home based worker, self-employed worker, or a wage worker in the unorganized sector.... or those working in the unorganized sector or households, excluding regular workers with social security benefits provided by the employers, and the workers in the formal sector without any employment and social security benefits provided by the employers'(NCEUS 2009: Sec 2.m). The informal economy consists of the informal sector and its workers plus the informal workers in the formal sector. This definition enlarges the scope of the unorganized sector considerably and hence proves more comprehensive than the NSSO definition of the 'Unorganised' as all those not being in public sector or government units, and not covered by the Annual Survey of Industries. However, by restricting the coverage to enterprises employing less than 10, the NCEUS excludes many industries which are in the unorganized sector, such as brick kilns not using power in the manufacturing process. The number of persons employed in these, even if it be for only a portion of the year, will be well above 9 (South Asia Citizens' Web). …

Human Resource Development Climate in IT Industry

Abstract: Introduction Human Resource Development (HRD) is a process by which the employees of an organization are helped, in a continuous, planned way to: 1) acquire or sharpen capabilities required to perform various functions associated with their present or expected future roles, 2) develop their general capabilities as individuals and discover and exploit their own potentials for their own and/or organizational development purposes, and 3) develop an organizational culture in which supervisor-subordinate relationships, teamwork, and collaboration among subunits are strong and contribute to the professional well being, motivation, and pride of employees (Rao 1985). Performance appraisal, potential appraisal, feedback and performance coaching, career planning, organisational development, training, rewards, employee welfare and human resource information are subsystems in the integrated HRD systems. An optimum level of developmental climate is essential for facilitating HRD. Recognizing the importance of HRD climate, Centre for HRD, Xavier Labour Relations Institute (XLRI) developed a 38-item HRD climate questionnaire to survey the extent to which development climate exists in organisations. Review of Earlier Research Using this instrument the first survey of HRD climate in Indian organizations was carried out by Rao and Abraham (1986) among 41 organizations in India. The study has found that the general HRD climate in the organizations appears to be at an average level. Venkateswaran (1997) made a study in a public sector undertaking in India and found that, to a large extent, a favourable HRD climate was prevalent in the organization under study. Srimannarayana (2001) identified below average level of HRD climate in a software organization in India. However, Agarwala (2002) found that the HRD climate was significantly more developmental in IT industry when compared to in the automobile industry. Mishra and Bhardwaj (2002) carried out a HRD climate survey in a private sector undertaking in India and concluded that the HRD climate in that organization was good. Rodrigues (2004) conducted a study in the engineering institutes in India and found the HRD climate a highly satisfactory one. The study conducted by Pillai (2008) on HRD climate in banks, identified that the HRD climate existing in banks as moderate. This study further found that a supportive HRD climate in banks stimulated the learning orientation of the employees working therein. Based on the information collected from 42 organisations in India, Srimannarayana (2008) has found that moderate HRD climate was prevailing in the organisations in India. The Present Study The present study is an attempt to assess the extent of HRD climate prevailing in IT industry. The data have been collected for the present study from the employees of 17 IT companies operating in India. The questionnaires have been distributed randomly taking into consideration availability of employees and their interest to give responses to the questionnaires. 543 usable responses have been received. The data are analyzed quantitatively using percentages and mean scores with the help of SPSS. Analysis An attempt has been made here to present the analysis of HRD climate based on the responses of the sampled employees in IT industry on the three categories of HRD climate such as general HRD climate, OCTAPAC culture and HRD mechanisms. Comparative analysis and overall analysis follow. General HRD Climate In order to assess the general HRD climate prevailing in the organisations, 11 items are identified from the questionnaire and the responses of the sampled employees in the organizations have been calculated. The overall mean score for these 11 items put together is 3.18 on a 5-point scale. Therefore, it can be stated that the general HRD climate prevailing in the units under study is average (54.50%). The most important factor contributing to this seems to be the lack of top managements' willingness to invest a considerable part of their time and other resources to ensure the development of employees. …

Diversity in Career Systems: The Role of Employee Work Values

Abstract: Introduction Human resource management and in particular career management has been looked upon as a key strategic asset for far-sighted organizations (Huselid 1995, Miles & Snow 1984, Peck 1994, Sonnenfeld & Peiperl 1988). With the rapid growth in the last few years especially in emerging economies, opportunities to grow within have improved tremendously. At the same time, top management of organizations are concerned over people leaving for greener pastures outside and the resulting loss of talent. Potential shortage of employees in general and of talented employees in particular varies across industries, but the overall trend points to a crucial human resource management issue (Lewis & Heckman 2006). Career management is an important tool in determining whether an organization will have the skills and knowledge when it needs them (Adamson, Doherty & Viney 1998). Entry level recruitment and a planned sequence of employee moves managed through training and development, performance based promotion, succession management and job rotation based on a logical sequence of work positions create an overall career structure by which organizations can maintain and develop the needed talent to satisfy organizational needs (Conaty & Charan 2010). Meyer and Smith (2000) found that career development practices were the best predictors of affective and normative commitment of employees. Perceptions of career development related employment practices such as internal mobility, training and employment security are significantly related to psychological commitment above and beyond that achieved by other workplace characteristics such as participation, communication and supervisory relations (Gaertner & Nollen 1989). Given this importance of career systems to both organizational and employee outcomes, it is no surprise that providing career support is one of the significant organizational activities (Baruch & Peiperl 2000). With the breakdown of trade barriers, globalization, and proliferation of well accepted management ideas such as TQM, JIT, Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) & Lean Production (LP) technology, product or brand per se may not be a source of sustainable competitive advantage for organizations in the long run. The ability to learn quicker than the market or the competitor is going to be a key competitive differentiator in the long-run (Degeus 1988, Senge 1990). Learning by individual employees is fundamental to organizational learning--organizations can learn independent of a specific individual but not independent of all individuals (Kim 1993). Learning is especially important for people occupying the 'A' positions. Hence, only those companies that are able to retain the best and brightest and are able to compete for human resources on a world wide basis, would have a distinct competitive advantage (Agarwala 2002, Lawler 2008). With the tightening economic situation, the need to be competitive has resulted in organizations introducing several measures of financial control including restructuring and layoffs (Coucke, Pennings, Sleuwaegen 2007, Coyle-Shapiro & Kessler 2000). This situation has lead to a change in the psychological contract between organizations and employees (Herriot & Pamberton 1995, Sparrow 1996, Krishnan 2011, Sullivan Carden and David 1998). Under the old system, employees exchanged loyalty for job security, whereas, at present employees exchange performance for training so as to remain marketable. Further Sparrow (1996) in his analysis of the research done in Anglo-Saxon economies, argues that the old contract was forged in a period of full employment, stability, growth and predictability, wherein rewards and career advancement was based on hard work and loyalty, whereas the new contract is based on motivational factors of job enrichment and competency development. The fallout of the flexible work contracts and large scale restructuring is a decreased trust of management and instead of the career being viewed as a series of progressive positions within the organisation the term has come to mean a negotiated deal with the employers (Herriott & Stickland 1996). …

Knowledge Hoarding: A Bottleneck to Organizational Success

Abstract: Elephant & the Blind Men A story from our ancient Indian scriptures goes something like this: Six blind men tried figuring out how an elephant really looked. They have not felt one before. As they approached the elephant, each one could get hold of its different body parts. The blind man who felt a leg said that the elephant was like a pillar; the one who felt the tail said that the elephant was like a rope; the one who felt the trunk said that the elephant was like a tree branch; the one who felt the ear said the elephant was like a hand fan; the one who felt the belly said the elephant was like a wall; and the one who felt the tusk said the elephant was like a solid pipe. This led to a conflict situation. A sage passing by became a witness to this incident. Pacifying, he explained to them: "All of you are right. The reason every one of you is telling it differently is because each one of you touched the different part of the elephant. So, actually the elephant has all the features you mentioned." Sharing of Knowledge In a knowledge based society, the economic value comes by sharing of knowledge. This knowledge/belief/understanding is either created and/or embedded in the organizational system by the collaborative efforts of intellectual masses we often call as human resources. It is primarily for this reason that human as a resource is considered as the most critical of all the resources of production. Primarily for this knowledge component, organizational theorists have started considering human resource as the only resource difficult for competitors to emulate. They now also regard it as Human Capital (HC). Time is not far off when we will see a more seamless trade-off between Knowledge Management (KM) & Human Resource Management (HRM). As we all know, greater than or equal to two individuals come together to realize a dream. They call this dream by varied names like objective; purpose; aim; intent; goal; mission; vision, etc.. In order to actualize this dream, they toil very hard. They go up even to the extent of becoming one. Not just among themselves but also with the dream they wove together. As time passes, a repository of knowledge is created in the workplace. A common understanding prevails. Individuals add to this pool, draw from it and even then the pool becomes richer and richer. This is the magic of sharing. This knowledge repository (tacit/explicit) becomes the driving force behind the success of an organization. It keeps the organization going; brings the best out of everyone; builds avenues for open communication; creates synergies; lets the innovative juices flow in the otherwise dry organizational veins; assists in professional and personal growth; gears an organization from 'Organizational Learning' to 'Learning Organization'; takes the organization forward in unchartered territories; helps us adapt to change; propels us to initiate change; assists to take the right decisions; facilitates timely actions; helps us socialize- create that much needed informal bonding; aids us in developing productive relationships; gives us a reason to trust others; makes the optimum use of scarce human resource a possibility, etc.. At times it also lets us wear serendipity. And soon the core members start believing that they are about to realize their dreams. They start dreaming big. …

HRD in Emerging Economies-Research Perspectives in Indian Banking

Abstract: Introduction Indian banking systems has undergone rapid changes in the decade of the 90s Changing banking sector in India offers huge opportunities and with the opportunities come the challenges In the wake of greater financial deregulation and global financial integration, the challenges to survive and develop in this global economic scenario, banks could not afford to ignore the HRD facets However, it is change, and especially the rate at which change occurs that largely influences the HRD hybrid that any organisation adopts Techno-sophistication has facilitated the speed of change in banking The wisdom about the important role that HRD plays for organisational success has been developed over the years and finds its relevance even more today The changing dynamics have sketched a new role for HRD in the organisations Trends in managing people in this dynamic industry reflects emergence of the most critical issues in lieu of the enormous opportunities spun off by the market As the entire Indian banking industry is witnessing a paradigm shift in systems, processes, strategies, it would warrant creation of new competencies and capabilities on an on-going basis, thus, demanding in-depth studies Researches enhancing the understanding of paradigm shift in Indian banking sector especially those directed towards change are very limited It is important to realise emerging patterns in Indian banking and HRD in Indian banking systems Emerging Scenario in Indian Banking & HRD Relationship between importance of HRD and its effect on the organisational performance have been established much earlier HR efforts like training and development for new breed of bankers is crucial while managing human factor for banks According to Asian Development Bank (1999), India needs to accelerate structural reforms directed towards its financial and capital markets, concentrate on infrastructure and public finance consolidation and strengthening support for human resource development to ensure sustainability of reform process in banking sector that have impacted the sector extensively (Reddy 2005) There is need to focus on developing human resources to cope with the rapidly changing scenario In transforming Indian banking into a vibrant system, initiatives would not work unless quality human resources are available (Jalan 2001a, 2002b) HRD is the key to the success of any organisation and that success lies in how efficiently the organisation manages its human resources and adapts to change, matches with the global standards, evaluates on an ongoing basis continual up-gradation in the organisation (Gupta 2003) Banks require quality human resources and that would be in serious trouble unless quality HR is retained HR needs special focus in terms of attracting, retaining and motivating human resources Quality of human resources should be commensurate with the ability of banks to deliver value to customers Banks should emphasize on the need to streamline human resource development strategies with business strategy (Kamesam 2004) It is the impact of change, technology and challenges of enhancing the quality of existing manpower and explaining importance of changing HRM in the Indian banks (Leeladhar 2005) which is set to face more challenges (Nair 2006) Dynamism in Indian banking can be attributed to the challenges like upward direction of interest rates, demanding customers, financial inclusion, technological advancements, competition for human talent and efficient utilisation of a bank's resources (Financial Express 2010) Other challenges before Indian banking sector, according to Kamath et al (2003) are changing needs of customers, coping with regulatory reforms, thinning spread, maintaining high quality assets, management of impaired assets, keeping pace with technology upgradation, healthy bottom lines and increasing shareholder value The drivers of dynamic changes offer challenges, which need to be addressed to unleash the competitive advantage offered by the Indian banking sector and thus contribute to invigorate banking sector's growth …

Globalization Dilemmas & the Way Out

Abstract: Key Ideas Let me start with some of the broad ideas before going on to what I call a fundamental political trilemma of the world economy. This will allow us to highlight some of the key tensions, particularly those between hyper-globalisation and democracy. The Euro Zone today demonstrates my arguments quite well. The first key idea is that there is a natural limit to how far markets can extend themselves and that limit is defined by the scope of the workable regulations and governance that markets need. This is a corollary to Adam Smith's famous dictum that the division of labour is limited by the extent of the market. The corollary is that the market itself in turn is limited by the scope of workable regulations that non-market institutions need to extend to the same range that the markets are trying to cover. The second idea relates to who or what provides or where do these institutions of regulation and governance come from? The main locus of legitimate governance today still remains the nation state. By legitimate locus I mean the answer to the following question: at what level does democratic deliberation rests for the most part? It is mostly at the level of the nation state and therefore, any notion of global governance or trans-national governance or any kind of mechanism of international governance or multi-lateralism that has significant institutions of democratic accountability and representativeness is still far off. Third, there are legitimate differences across nation states on the shape these governance institutions ought to take. These differences arise from cultural differences. They arise also from the varying needs and preferences of different nation states and from the different levels of development in different countries. None of these three ideas are particularly controversial when they are taken individually. Yet collectively they have implications which run counter to a lot of current thinking about how to address globalisation. We have to resign ourselves to a world where the governance of the world economy is bound to remain a patchwork, no matter how hard we push for global governance. Global governance is fundamentally a fool's errand for good and substantive reasons. The implication is that, once we internalise that idea, we have no other option but to understand that we need to moderate our ambitions with regard to economic globalisation or what I call hyper-globalisation, which is something that we actually cannot attain and any set of policies at the national or global level that are designed as if that is a worthy and feasible goal, is likely to bounce back with unexpected negative consequences. When we get the balance wrong between institutions of governance and the reach of markets at the global level, we are going to run either into problems of legitimacy or problems of efficiency. When we push for global rules and global harmonisation too far without mechanisms of political accountability we are going to run into problems of inefficiency and instability. We then push global markets too far without corresponding rules. Institutions of Capitalism Adam Smith had a key insight in to the importance of markets and private initiative that market was the most creative and dynamic engine known to man and that this market required a very minimal state, providing very minimal functions. That markets required very thin level of governance has survived both in textbooks as well as in libertarian tradition that is still actually very strong in United States, which views markets as separate and disembodied from politics as long as the government simply protects property rights and undertakes national defence functions, nothing else is required for markets really to prosper. In the Twentieth Century, we developed a much richer conception of the markets. We better understood that the markets need to be embedded in a much more complete, and stricter set of institutions and that the markets are not self-creating. …

Entrepreneurial Motives of Indian Entrepreneurs: An Empirical Study

Abstract: Introduction Entrepreneurial motivation is one of the key elements in entrepreneurial performance. Stuart & Abetti (1990) found a positive correlation between objectives pursued by entrepreneurs and the performance of their businesses. Kurtako et al. (1997) and Robichaud et al. (2001) observed entrepreneurial motivation as goal statement that entrepreneurs seek to achieve; they grouped various items measuring entrepreneurial motivation into four motivational factors, viz., Extrinsic Rewards, Intrinsic Rewards, Independence/Autonomy, and Family Security. Dubini and Aziendale (1988), on the basis of the findings of their study of 163 Italy based entrepreneurs, grouped factors of entrepreneurial motivation into seven sets, viz., (i) Achievement (related to sense of individualism, accomplishment and development); (ii) Philanthropy (related to welfare of the individual, family or community); (iii) Status (related to recognition, prestige, respect); (iv) Materialism (related to economic consideration); (v) Escape (related to escape, an undesirable situation); (vi) Freedom (related to flexibility of work, time, collaborations); and (vii) Role Model (related to continuing family tradition). Rodrigo (1986), in his study of Cali Columbia based 64 entrepreneurs, found out the following motivating factors for entrepreneurship: independence, desire to make a reality of their ideas, confidence in their capacities, desire to develop their initiative and creativity, money, desire to be their own boss, and desire to define their life path before getting old. Vidyu Lata (1990) suggests that security, prestige, power and social service are equally potential motives. Thus, various motives have been identified as factors of entrepreneurial motivation. Earlier Research In a number of research studies, attempts have been made to rank entrepreneurial motives as perceived by the entrepreneurs themselves. McClelland (1961) identified 'need for achievement' as the single most important factor of entrepreneurial motivation. Hornaday and Bunker (1970) also supported the McClelland's view considering achievement motive as an explanatory variable for entrepreneurial behavior. Collins and Moore (1970) recognized independence as an important entrepreneurial motive. Further, Hornaday and Aboud (1971) reported that the need for achievement, support, independence, and leadership are the most significant entrepreneurial characteristics. Alange (1988), in his Swedish study (which was a part of an international cross-cultural study of 15 countries), found that Swedish entrepreneurs were motivated by need for independence. Bhattacharya (1979) found that power, self-actualization and achievement motivation are significantly higher in entrepreneurs compared to economic and affiliation motivation. Respect for work was recognized as an important motivating factor of entrepreneurship by Akhouri and Mishra (1990). Vijaya and Kamalanabhan (1998) also found that economic factors and the need for independence emerge as major reasons for the respondents wanting to go into business. In Mitchell's (2004) study of motive profiles of 101 South African entrepreneurs, both men and women entrepreneurs were found to be primarily motivated by the need for independence, need for material incentives and the need for achievement; the need to contribute to the community was not found to be an important reason. Murugesan & Sankaran (2006), in their study of 153 entrepreneurs of Tamil Nadu (India), found that the majority of entrepreneurs were motivated mainly by the urge to attain economic independence such as the desire to earn money and to be self-employed. Chowdhary & Monika Prakash (2007), in their exploratory study of entrepreneurial motives of 179 young Indian entrepreneurs, found that autonomy and freedom dominated the motives for entrepreneurship. The results of the recent study of 243 Indian North Eastern (Assamese) entrepreneurs on entrepreneurial motivation conducted by Khanka (2009) showed that entrepreneurs were primarily motivated by the need for economic achievement, personal growth, autonomy and recognition; the desire to contribute to the community was not found to be an important reason to become an entrepreneur. …

Trade Union Participation in Leather Industry in Kolkata

Abstract: Introduction The Kolkata leather industry has been divided in to different sub-sectors such as tannery units (medium and small scale), export oriented leather goods manufacturing units, fabricator of leather goods and units catering to indigenous market, fabricator of industrial gloves, small, medium and large scale footwear manufacturers, house-hold manufacturing units and merchant exporters etc. The available data shows that the trends in the employment creation by these subsectors are not uniform. The lack of uniformity seems to be natural as the number of units in each type of sub-sectors widely varies across leather industry in Kolkata. For example, the number of micro-enterprises across sub-sectors of Kolkata leather industry has been maximum creating highest number of employment whereas the number of large scale units in the leather industry has been very limited. Table 1 shows the trend in employment creation in the sub-sectors over the years. During 2007-2009 period employment in Kolkata leather industry has increased at a very moderate rate of about 4.6%. The growth rate is relatively higher in fabricator and house hold manufacturing units, export oriented leather goods manufacturing units etc. However, the only large scale footwear manufacturing unit in the Kolkata leather cluster has witnessed reduction in the number of workers. Except a few major leather and leather products manufacturing units, in majority of the units across different subsectors of the Kolkata leather cluster, the working conditions are not only appalling but there is also scant regard for workers' safety or health. Though, the traditional leather units of Kolkata is dominated by low caste and Muslim migrant workers from neighboring states of Bihar, Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh, the entry of people from different backgrounds are growingly visible in the sector. About 70% of the workers engaged in the industry are traditionally employed as temporary workers. Most of them join the industry as workers with very low or no skill and they acquire required skills simply by observation at the initial stages. Very often these low skilled new entrants to the sector acquire skill under the guidance of their relatives or somebody else from their place of origin, also employed as worker in a leather unit in Kolkata. They are the people who actually bring these very cheap workers from their villages to enable them to learn the required skills at the place of their employment. However, the labor market is flexible and intensively competitive and mostly they are paid on a piece rate basis. Abundant supply of labor together with the absence of unit level strong labor unions has pushed down the wages to the reservation level. Minimum wages are not followed in most cases and the workers are also not in the position of demanding higher wage rates as the supply of labor is in abundant. According to a recent government order, the minimum wage rate for unskilled /low skilled workers in tanneries and leather manufacturing units in KMDA area should be Rs. 162.33, Rs. 178.46 for semi-skilled workers and for the highly skilled workers it should be Rs. 196. 31. In reality very few units comply with these minimum wage rates. In most of the manufacturing units, specially in the leather footwear and accessories manufacturing units, work is based on almost putting out system and during peak season the workers work for 16 to 18 hours per day and during the slack season the daily working hour comes down to 6 to 7 hours per day only causing loss of employment to many low skilled or unskilled workers. However, the limited number of workers under the regular pay-roll remains with their jobs. In tanneries and fabricating units the machine operators and highly skilled workers are offered regular employment and in leather product manufacturing units the high skilled workers, specially the solemen and uppermen are kept as fixed workers. …

Co-Creation: An Exploratory Study of MSMEs & Large Banks in India

Abstract: Introduction As a result of various factors including information non-availability, non-implementation of professional working systems, and past experience of NPAs (Non Performing Assets), banks tend to detest lending finance to Small and Medium Enterprises in India (MSMEs) (RBI, 2005). On account of growth potential, employment generation capacity, export generation, and their role as the seedbed to new entrepreneurship MSMEs are an important segment of industrial and services sectors in India. (RBI, 2010) Indian SMEs have come a long way since libralization in 1991. According to Rajan Kumar, Former CMD, Indian bank and VC, CVC 2010, "Experience has shown that the SME sector is becoming more efficient in terms of production vis-a-vis persons employed. According to the recent report by the Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMS), the production during 2008-2009 went up by 11.4% whilst the number of persons employed rose by 5.2%. In the same fiscal year, 1.237 million new enterprises were added to this sector. This speaks of better utilisation of capacity and effective practices being followed by this sector." Banks are the major funds provider to the SMEs. A RBI circular in FY 2005-06 made it mandatory for banks to lend to SMEs sector (priority sector lending). Due to the problems with regard to profits of SMEs and Non Performing Assets and risks in lending, banks operating in India (both Indian and multinational) need to provide unique solutions to SMEs for mutually sustainable growth. Micro, Small & Medium Enterprises (MSME) Micro, Small and Medium enterprises sector (MSME) (in this paper we will be using MSME and SMEs as interchangeable as in India SMEs are known as MSME legally) (Table 1) accounts for about 45% of the manufacturing output and 40% of the total exports of India as per value. Besides manufacturing more than 6000 products (Table 2) ranging from traditional to high tech items this sector also employs approximately 60 million persons in 26 million units (Table 3). The uniqueness of this sector is that it has registered a higher growth rate than the rest of the industrial sector (MSME 2010). MSME sector contributes to approximately 8% of the India's GDP and 45% of Indian industrial production (Table 4) Problem Faced by MSMEs The major problem Indian MSME faces is availability of an adequate amount of finances (Thampy, 2010). In India, banks are the providers of funds to the Industry. Especially for SME's, banks are saviors as SMEs do not have access to capital markets (Thampy, 2010; Todd & Javalgi, 2007). From the year 2005-06 and after the RBI circular, Government of India and the banks have started to pay considerable attention to the SMEs sector as it comes under the priority sector lending. Indian banks are required to give a minimum 40% of the adjusted net bank credit to the priority sector and foreign banks have a minimum 32% exposure to the priority sector (RBI, 2009). The biggest problem the bank faces while extending credit to SMEs is the credit risk of the SMEs. Borrowers have more information on projects than the banks (Myers & Majluf, 1984). There is the absence of a mechanism to bridge the information asymmetry between the borrowers and the lenders (Todd & Javalgi, 2007) A bank considers two aspects in their credit decisions: a) the interest rate on the loan and b) the credit risk of the loan. A person will agree to pay higher interest on loans to projects, which has more risks. Greater risk projects have high risk of interest default (Stiglitz & Weiss, 1981). It is also argued that the issue of bank competition and credit availability may matter to SMEs as they are more vulnerable to information problems, and SMEs are more bank dependent than the large enterprises (Carbo, Rodrigues 8 Udell, 2008). It was also found that once the Government gives the priority lending status to SMEs, they have considerably beneficial impact on increase in sales due to availability of bank credit (Banerjee, Cole & Duflo, 2003). …

Industrial Relations in Bangladesh: A Comparative Scenario between Public & Private Sectors

Abstract: Introduction One of the major functions of human resource management is to maintain smooth industrial relations (IR). It is also treated as one of the oldest functions of HRM. It is basically allied with the relations between the employer and the workers in the industry (Singh & Kumar, 2011: 3). According to Weeratunga (2003: 5) "Industrial Relations or Labor Relations, the terms used interchangeably, can be viewed as the interaction between the various interested parties involved in employment. The employer and the employee are obvious parties. The state, in ensuring a level playing field for both sides, provides the legal framework within which such relations may take place". In industrial relations, workers are generally represented by their trade unions formed under chapter 13 of Bangladesh Labor Act--2006 whereas employers are represented by their associations such as Bangladesh Employers Federation. HR managers mediate the relationships between workers and employers though they are appointed by the representatives of employers. Another related term is 'Employee Relations'. Though both the terms industrial relations and employee relations are structurally similar (Decenzo & Robbins, 1999: 18), employee relations includes, in addition to industrial relations, such aspects as participative management, employee wellbeing, employee development, employee compensation, employee protection and health, and the like (Aswathappa, 2008:534). Generally industrial relations cover the areas such as trade unions, collective bargaining, settlement of industrial disputes, grievance handling procedure, role of government, labor laws, courts and tribunals and role of employers. In the context of developing countries, industrial relations has been influenced by features such as high exploitation of workers, low level of worker participation in decision making, government and political interferences, high rate of illiteracy of workers, low level of employment, low level of awareness among the laborers regarding rights, laws, and trade unionism, and low labor productivity (Khan & Taher, 2008: 222-23). Industrial relations plays an important role in establishing and maintaining industrial democracy (Monappa, 2004: 9) and it is the key to improve productivity in industrial enterprises (Aswathappa, 2004: 534). Human resource management can play vital roles in enhancing cooperative and friendly industrial relations. In Bangladesh, collective bargaining on pay between employer and workmen is prohibited in the public sector enterprises as the government designs uniform pay and benefits for the employees of all public sector enterprises (Mahmood, 2008). The limited scope of collective bargaining in the public sector of Bangladesh influences the trade unions to develop network with government, political parties and other powerful bodies in organizing their activities. It hinders effective interactions between the representatives of employers and workers at enterprise level. Though performance based pay is considered to have significant impact on employee performance (Dessler & Varkkey, 2010: 15), it is not at all practiced by the public sector enterprises in Bangladesh. As a result, public sector enterprises in Bangladesh have been incurring huge losses. On the other hand, all types of collective bargaining takes place at enterprise level in case of private sector enterprises (Khan, 1996). Mahmood (2008) mentioned that the industrial relations process in the private sector was often disturbed by links between private and public sector unions. Objectives a) To explore the differences between public and private sector industrial enterprises of Bangladesh with respect to overall status of IR. b) To put forward policy implications of overall improvement in IR of Bangladesh. Industrial Relations Studies in Bangladesh Khan (1986) studied industrial relations in Bangladesh with special emphasis on trade unionism. …

Innovation Promotion Competencies of Indian Managers: An Empirical Study

Abstract: Introduction The recent study Khandwalla and Mehta (2004) indicated that effective management of innovation is the greatest predictor of change in competitive corporate excellence Managers, therefore, are expected to institutionalize and nurture the climate and culture for fostering innovation in organizations And for promoting the innovation in organizations, they require enthusiasm, commitment and capability to such a level as to act as innovation champions Innovation champions, in fact, help to legitimize the creative idea of an originator (ideator or inventor) and also serve as bridge between the unconventional ideator and traditional management (Jain 2010) Where the role of idea champion is formalized and resourced, innovations are most likely to occur (Daft 1986) Innovation promotion competencies are necessarily required to be possessed by the innovation champions Innovation promotion competencies are those abilities / capabilities that enable innovation champions to transform new ideas / knowledge into new products, services, schemes, systems, processes for the benefit of the organization as a whole as well as for the benefit of all or some of the stakeholders Such competencies also enable managers to synthesize the abilities to run main-stream business successfully and capabilities to generate, adopt and implement new mechanisms for self-renewal within the organization and its new-stream Social capital as well as human capital of the innovation champion enables him / her to gain success in the matter of promoting the intended innovations Human capital of an innovation champion includes all aspects of the personality, experience and competencies (Jenssen & Havens 2002) Social capital includes social networks, access to the cross section sources of relevant information and mutuality & reciprocity inheriting in one's social networks The presentation in the present paper is confined to only human capital of managerial personnel of selected Indian organizations Earlier Research A large number of human capital factors are assumed to influence the innovation Risk-taking propensity, selfconfidence, spirit of go-ahead despite many obstacles, enthusiastic attitude towards new ideas (technology), abilities to inspire others, quality of encouraging others to put greater effort, capacity to access and stimulate others intellectually, having communication networks (Howell & Higgins 1990 a, 1990b), competence to gain binding support from others (Dean 1987), political cleverness (Beath 1991), diplomatic skills (Chakrabarty 1974), ability to articulate a catchy and fascinating vision (Jenssen & Jorgensen 2005), patience and aggressiveness (Beatty & Gordon 1991), having influence on the conduct and action of other actors in the organization (Holbeck 1990), having persuasion abilities even to convince sceptical people (Burgelman 1983), having understanding of the technical aspects of innovation (Chakraborty 1974), knowledge of the trade (Pearson 1988), a high ranking job (Holbek 1990), having greater force of power & status (Rothwell 1974), emotional appeal, communicative strength and other skills to inspire others (Beath 1991), and willingness to invest great amount of energy for innovation etc are the important individualspecific human-capital resources of innovation champions as revealed in the earlier researches Several earlier studies (Beath 1991, Dean 1987, Burgelman 1983, Kipnis et al 1980) indicate that the innovation champions use a broad variety of influence tactics, however the personality characteristics of the particular champion determine his / her choice of influence strategy (Howell & Shea 2001), certain factors (eg, availability of others' support for innovation) in the specific champion situation also affect the champion's influence tactics (Kipnis et al 1980) A number of social capital factors such as 'structural holes' (1) in the person's network inside the organization (Krackhardt 1995), layers in ties among players of the social system (2) (Granovetter 1973), informal relations among people in organizations, warmth / emotional attachment in friendship relations, emotional ties with organizational members (3) (Krackhardt 1992), informal communication among organization's people (Beatty & Gordon 1991), nature of coalition of supporters inside and outside of the organization, social and structural barriers that prevent some innovation (Holbek 1990), availability and extent of superiors' support for bottlegging practices (4) (Meyerson 2001, Augsdorfer 1994) also influence the application of resource acquisition strategies by the innovation champion …

Self Efficacy & Career Self Management: Moderating Role of Proactive Personality

Abstract: Introduction Scholars have emphasized the need for a better understanding of career self management (King, 2004; Kossek et. al, 1998) due to the changing nature of career moving from a traditional, "bounded" and driven by employment relations to being boundaryless and increasingly self directed by the employee (Arthur & Rousseau, 1996). Despite extensive studies in vocational behavior about the role of self efficacy, there has been little consideration of the role of self efficacy for career self management (King, 2004). King (2001) pointed to the little consideration given while examining the relationship of self efficacy and career self-management though Crant (2000) has argued that self efficacy is associated with proactive behavior. The objective of the present study is to bridge the gap by examining the influence of self efficacy and career self management with the moderating role of proactive personality. Career Self Management Career self-management has been defined as the degree to which one regularly gathers information and plans for career problem solving and decision making (Kossek et al., 1998). Studies reveal that individuals seek and collect information related to their careers to assess personal competence and job opportunities to take informed decisions about their careers. Greenhaus's (1987) has defined career management as a problem solving method by which individuals gather relevant information through career exploration to develop a greater awareness of themselves and their environment, in order to develop career strategies. Individuals need to understand their own strengths and weakness before making decisions regarding their careers. Seeking information related to one's career is central to the effectiveness of the entire career management process. Orpen (1994) argued that career management is the "joint responsibility" of both individuals and the organizations employing them. Organization career management consists of policies and practices deployed to increase the career effectiveness of its employees while individual career management (career self-management) consists of personal efforts made by employees to advance in their own careers (Open, 1994). In order to manage one's own career well, individuals take on new roles and responsibilities, engage in constant self monitoring and review their perceptions associated with their careers Kossek et al. (1998). The concept of career self management is grounded on the concept of career resilience where individuals strive be aware of one's strengths and weakness, keep oneself updated about market trends, proactively working towards skill sets that the organization needs in the near future and accordingly updating one's skill set (Waterman, Waterman & Collard, 1994). Such individuals are more likely to seek feedback on their strengths and weakness. Career self management also overlaps with career exploration and management (Greenhaus, 1987; Hall, 1986). Career literature has focused on individuals collecting career related information to explore job opportunities in order to aid career decision making. "Career exploration" has been defined as an individual's collection and analysis of career-related information (Kossek et al., 1998) and is central to the effectiveness of the entire career management process. The information gathering process concerns not only the existing role or current employer but also other prospective employers or other career opportunities. For this purpose individuals also network either formally or informally to know about other job opportunities. In other words, career self management aims at gathering information that would help individuals prepare oneself for movement internal or external based on career opportunities (Kossek et al., 1998). However, career self management need not essentially focus on mobility outside the existing organization. For example, King (2004) noted that a comprehensive view of career management needs to consider inter-organizational mobility and motivational factors like personal development and knowledge gathered. …