Showing papers in "Visual Cognition in 1995"
TL;DR: The response competition paradigm has been used to map the visual attentional field as a function of task demands and has also been found useful in the study of memory as mentioned in this paper, and has provided insights into the fast same effect on same-different judgements on comparison tasks.
Abstract: Research has shown that the reaction-time interference produced by the flankers task arises, at least in large part, from the incipient activation of competing responses. The response competition paradigm has made valuable contributions to evaluating continuous flow versus discrete stage models of information processing as well as understanding cortical evoked potentials. The paradigm has been used to map the visual attentional field as a function of task demands and has also been found useful in the study of memory. It offers promise in studies of cognitive categorization and has provided insights into the “fast same effect” on same-different judgements on comparison tasks. It is currently being applied to the study of disjunctive comparisons.
348 citations
TL;DR: A new neuro-cognitive Visual Attention Model, called VAM, is a model of visual attention control of segmentation, object recognition, and space-based motor action that solves the “inter- and intra-object-binding problem”.
Abstract: This paper introduces a new neuro-cognitive Visual Attention Model, called VAM. It is a model of visual attention control of segmentation, object recognition, and space-based motor action. VAM is concerned with two main functions of visual attention-that is “selection-for-object-recognition” and “selection-for-space-based-motor-action”. The attentional control processes that perform these two functions restructure the results of stimulus-driven and local perceptual grouping and segregation processes, the “visual chunks”, in such a way that one visual chunk is globally segmented and implemented as an “object token”. This attentional segmentation solves the “inter- and intra-object-binding problem”. It can be controlled by higher-level visual modules of the what-pathway (e.g. V4/IT) and/or the where-pathway (e.g. PPC) that contain relatively invariant “type-level” information (e.g. an alphabet of shape primitives, colors with constancy, locations for space-based motor actions). What-based attention...
242 citations
TL;DR: This paper explored the developmental time course of the ability to discriminate between direct and averted gaze and found that infants as young as four months could discriminate between the two types of gaze, and this ability was not due to the development of low-level visual processes.
Abstract: Faces, as a class of objects, have been studied extensively in order to understand how the human visual system recognizes and represents objects. In this paper we studied the ontogeny of the ability to perceive gaze direction. We bring together both developmental research and neurophysiological and neuropsychological research in order to address this issue. In two experiments we explored the developmental time course of the ability to discriminate between direct and averted gaze, a task thought to involve cortical information processing of faces. We found that (a) infants as young as four months could discriminate between direct and averted gaze, (b) this ability was not due to the development of low-level visual processes, and (c) younger infants did not show reliable evidence of gaze discrimination. In an additional experiment we tested adults to study the effect of face context on the ability to discriminate gaze direction. Adult subjects were more sensitive in this discrimination when the eye...
170 citations
TL;DR: It is found that at least for rapid object recognition, each cortical stage provides information to the next in a short period of 20–50 msec, does not rely on temporal encoding, and completes sufficient computation to provide an output to thenext stage in this same 20- to 50-msec period.
Abstract: The information available about face identity from the firing rate and from temporal encoding in the spike train of single neurons recorded in the temporal lobe visual cortical areas of rhesus macaques was analysed using principal component and information theory analyses of smoothed spike trains. The neurons analysed had responses selective for faces. The stimulus set consisted of 20 different faces. The first principal component provided by a considerable extent the most information (57%) available in principal components 1–5, with the second adding 18%, the third 16%, and the fourth and fifth adding 9%. For each image, the weighting on the first principal component was highly correlated with the mean firing rate of the neuron to that image. The information available from the firing rate of the neuron was very close to that available in the first principal component. Information theory analysis showed that in short epochs (e.g. 50 msec) the information available from the firing rate can be as high, on average, as 65% of that available from the firing rate calculated over 400 msec, and 38% of that available from principal components 1–3 in the 400-msec period. It was also found that 30% of the information calculated from the first three principal components is available in the firing rates calculated over epochs as short as 20 msec. More information was available near the start of the neuronal response, and the information available from short epochs became less later in the neuronal response. Taken together, these analyses provide evidence that a short period of firing taken close to the start of the neuronal response provides a reasonable proportion of the total information that would be available if a long period of neuronal firing (e.g. 400 msec) were utilized to extract it, even if temporal encoding were used. The implications of these and related findings are that at least for rapid object recognition, each cortical stage provides information to the next in a short period of 20–50 msec, does not rely on temporal encoding, and completes sufficient computation to provide an output to the next stage in this same 20- to 50-msec period.
98 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that abrupt onsets interfere with selective search for a colour singleton and provided additional evidence for the theory of inadequate top-down control at the level of preattentive processing.
Abstract: In the present experiment, subjects searched multielement displays for a colour singleton. With a variable display-to-onset SOA, on some trials an abrupt onset was presented at three possible distances from the target location. The interference effect caused by the abrupt onset as a function of SOA and its relative position revealed the distinctive characteristics of preattentive and attentive processing. During preattentive parallel processing (processing occurring within the first 100 msec), any abrupt onset that occurred within the visual field captured attention. During attentive processing (processing occurring after 100 msec), however, focused attention prevented the abrupt onset from capturing attention. The finding that abrupt onsets interfere with selective search for a colour singleton provides additional evidence for the theory of inadequate top-down control at the level of preattentive processing.
55 citations
TL;DR: A selective review of the literature shows that the proposed distinction is supported by a variety of studies investigating diverse phenomena of target-background similarity effects, conjunctive search, illusory conjunctions, feature similarity effects), shape discrimination, detection of signals, categorical search, curvature discrimination, and length perception.
Abstract: The present paper proposes that preattended visual information produces a coarse representation by automatically stimulating a detector that responds to a range of similar features. Directing attention to a given location improves the resolution of features by computing the relative activation of overlapping internal detectors. A selective review of the literature shows that the proposed distinction is supported by a variety of studies investigating diverse phenomena of target-background similarity effects, conjunctive search, illusory conjunctions, feature similarity effects, global precedence, shape discrimination, detection of signals, categorical search, curvature discrimination, and length perception.
39 citations
TL;DR: This paper found that the majority of Chinese single-character words are compound, consisting of a lexical radical (LR) and one or more other constituents which together form the non-radical component (NR).
Abstract: A series of experiments on skilled readers of Chinese demonstrated selective attention to different orthographic components within compound, single-character words, as a function of different reading tasks (pronunciation vs. meaning). Chinese orthography provides a number of contrasts with alphabetic writing systems. The majority (over 90%) of Chinese single-character words are compound, consisting of a lexical radical (LR) and one or more other constituents. which together form the “non-radical component” (NR). The NR component as a whole specifies the syllabic pronunciation of the whole word (except in the case of “irregular” words). In contrast, the LR specifies (an aspect of) its meaning. Thus in order to take advantage of these regularities in pronunciation tasks, the skilled reader should attend selectively to the NR component. To do so, however, the reader must first locate the LR, which can occur in practically any relative location (e.g. top, bottom, left, or right of the character), in ...
37 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of the size and exposure duration of stimuli on processing dominance has been studied, and it was shown that the effect depends on the same/different eccentricity of global and local levels.
Abstract: The size and exposure duration of stimuli have been found to be relevant factors to the issue of processing dominance. Nevertheless, the relation between these two factors and their possible effects on processing dominance have never been studied. The aim of the present research was twofold: (a) to examine whether size and the exposure duration of stimuli affect processing dominance; (b) to examine whether these effects depend on the same/different eccentricity of global and local levels. Stimuli were presented at three exposure durations: 140 msec, 70 msec, and 40 msec. The overall sizes of stimuli were varied at three levels: small (3[ddot]), intermediate (6[ddot]) and large (12[ddot]). In Experiment 1 stimuli were used whose global and local levels were at different eccentricity (Hs and Ss stimuli). In Experiment 2 stimuli whose global and local levels were at the same eccentricity (Cs stimuli) were used. The results showed that the effects of visual angle on processing dominance are independe...
29 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the subjects were presented on a computer screen with a two-dimensional line drawing that is perceived as a three-dimensional object (i.e. a cube).
Abstract: In the present study two experiments are reported in which the subjects were presented on a computer screen with a two-dimensional line drawing that is perceived as a three-dimensionalobject (i.e. a cube). The cube could be seen as stationary, as rotating about the y-axis (Experiment 1A), or as rotating about the x-axis (Experiment 1B). The subject's attention was directed by a visual precue to a vertex of the cube. As the cube rotated, the precued location moved in viewer-centred co-ordinatesm, but the local feature of the cube that had been precued (i.e. a given vertex) did not move in object-centred co-ordinates. The imperative stimulus was presented at the precued location (valid trials) or at an uncued location (invalid trials). Precued and uncued locations were determined in object-centred coordinates. The subjects were required to signal detection of the imperative stimulus by pressing the space bar on the computer keyboard. There were also control conditions in which the procedure was ide...
27 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors defend the notion of modularity as a problem solved by attention, and instead argue that the problem of visual information processing is solved by modularity, not by attention.
Abstract: There is abundant evidence that the visual information-processing systems of higher animals are modular systems-systems consisting of relatively isolated networks of neurons that take the visual world apart (for example, Felleman & Van Essen, 1991, for an overview). Within contemporary psychology this modularity is often seen as a problem that requires a solution. The problem is: How does the brain put together all these different activities to produce a unified picture, so that, for example, for any object the right colour is associated with the right shape? The solution is that focal attention integrates the initially separable features in unitary objects. In this contribution the opposite point of view is defended-not modularity as a problem solved by attention, but attention as a problem solved by modularity. The starting-point is that contemporary experimental psychology has to explain observed behaviour, not visual perception as a subjective experience. In these explanations the theoretical...
24 citations
TL;DR: Van der Heijden as mentioned in this paper argues that the binding problem is a real one, for his model as well as for others, and that his account is more s...More specifically, he attacks two claims that are fundamental to my theory: (1) the idea that modularity gives rise to a "binding problem", and (2) the more general idea that there are limits to capacity at the level of perceptual processing.
Abstract: Van der Heijden rejects the feature integration theory of visual attention (Treisman, 1988, 1993; Treisman & Gelade, 1980) and proposes instead a theory relating modularity in the visual system to selection for action. His positive proposals about the relations between visual processing, intention, and selection for action are interesting, but I do not believe they are incompatible with my theory. In this paper I will focus on and question his arguments about the binding problem and the role of attention in visual perception. Van der Heijden attacks two claims that are fundamental to my theory: (1) the idea that modularity gives rise to a “binding problem” (the need to specify which of the features present characterize any particular object), and (2) the more general idea that there are limits to capacity at the level of perceptual processing. I will argue that he is wrong to reject the two claims, that the binding problem is a real one, for his model as for others, and that his account is more s...
TL;DR: In this article, subjects responded to five-symbol strings consisting of a central target, one or two compatible or incompatible flankers, and neutral symbols in the remaining positions, and performance strongly depended on the position of compatible or non-compatible flankers.
Abstract: Subjects responded to five-symbol strings consisting of a central target, one or two compatible or incompatible flankers, and neutral symbols in the remaining positions. Performance strongly depended on the position of compatible or incompatible flankers. With normal letters, left-side flankers had a much larger impact than right-side flankers. This left-side asymmetry of the flanker compatibility effect disappeared with strings composed of spaced letters or of tiny pictures and tended to turn into a right-side asymmetry with vertically mirrored letters. These results seem to indicate the operation of attentional scanning processes. Flankers may be scanned either automatically, due to a reading-like habit, or strategically, in attempting to localize the target.
TL;DR: This article found that increases in the distance separating two target locations within a figure produced longer response times and attenuated or eliminated the distance effect when the inside of the figure was coloured physically but not when presented well in advance of the target dots.
Abstract: Six experiments utilizing variations on an inside-outside decision task revealed that increases in the distance separating two target locations within a figure produced longer response times. This distance effect was attenuated or eliminated when the inside of the figure was coloured physically but not when the figure was presented well in advance of the target dots. These results suggest the use of a between-dot scanning operation for uncoloured figures and an indexing procedure for coloured figures. The best predictor of the distance effect was associated with a scanning process based on a zoom-lens model of curve tracing in which processing speed of the operator is proportional to the width of the scanned within-figure path.
TL;DR: In this paper, a priming paradigm was used to investigate the contribution of local features and global shape information in object recognition, and five types of incomplete forms were used as primes: (1) forms with both maxima (local curvature) and midsegments of edges present and aligned on the outline contour; (2) forms similar in global shape to the first version of stimuli, but with misaligned elements; (3) forms having only maxima; (4) form with only midsegment of edges; and (5) forms containing 3D
Abstract: A priming paradigm was used to investigate the contribution of local features and global shape information in object recognition. Five types of incomplete forms were used as primes: (1) forms with both maxima (local curvature) and midsegments of edges present and aligned on the outline contour; (2) forms similar in global shape to the first version of stimuli, but with misaligned elements; (3) forms with only maxima; (4) forms with only midsegments of edges; and (5) forms containing 3D comer junctions (in Experiments 3 and 4). The target was an outline drawing of an object from which the incomplete prime was derived. Subjects were asked to name the target as rapidly as possible. Primes were presented at levels of contrast corresponding to identification thresholds, as well as above and below threshold levels (determined in Experiments 1 and 3). Facilitation effects relative to a neutral (no prime) condition occurred at threshold and above threshold for primes with aligned elements, forms with onl...
TL;DR: This paper examined the effects of words frequency, orthographic structure, and letter spacing on a range of tasks designed to tap different levels of representation in word processing, including lexical decision and detecting a rotated letter within the letter strings.
Abstract: Four experiments are described examining the effects of words frequency, orthographic structure, and letter spacing on a range of tasks designed to tap different levels of representation in word processing. In Experiment 1, the task was lexical decision. Effects of both frequency (high-frequency words were recognized faster than low-frequency words) and orthographic regularity (illegal non-words were rejected faster than legal non-words) were found. In Experiment 2 subjects had to detect a rotated letter within the letter strings. Effects of orthographic structure emerged, with a marked disadvantage for illegal non-words with respect to the other types of string. No difference was found among high-frequency words, lowfrequency words and legal non-words. In Experiment 3, subjects had to detect a letter elevated above the horizontal plan with respect to the rest of the string. Effects of both spatial arrangement of letters and number of letters were found (spaced strings were responded to less accu...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the effect of eccentricity of target location on the slope of the function relating reaction time (RT) to display size differently in a feature search task compared to a task in which subjects search for the absence of a feature.
Abstract: Several psychophysical studies suggest that the quality of feature and positional information deteriorates differentially as a function of retinal eccentricity. Nevertheless, current models on visual search do not deal with such a difference. Two experiments have been executed in order to investigate whether eccentricity of target location affects the slope of the function relating reaction time (RT) to display size differently in a feature-search task compared to a task in which subjects search for the absence of a feature–that is, an absence-search task. The results showed that in the latter search rates strongly decreased when display elements were presented further from central fixation. In feature search there was no such effect. It is suggested that slope differences are related to the extent to which the attentional system is involved in compensating for inferior positional information in eccentric vision.
TL;DR: The authors investigated age differences in attentional allocation in a word localization and identification task and found that older adults are more likely to avoid the foveal area in order to distribute attentional resources to the periphery and are able to increase these effects of selection at longer SOA.
Abstract: The present study investigated age differences in attentional allocation in a word localization and identification task. Response times for valid and invalid spatial cue conditions were compared for each of two age groups under two SOA conditions: 500 msec and 1000 msec. Very high benefits for valid cues in terms of response time were found for both groups. Results indicated that attention was more important for words when compared with similar earlier studies using a simple shape identification task. A sensitive model-fitting technique was used to compare the cost and benefit of selective attention to words; it revealed that attention can be concentrated away from the fovea to benefit in word identification in much the same way for both age groups. The model-fit analysis also revealed that attention for word identification, and perhaps any more complex visual stimuli, is more diffuse than for simple shape identification. In addition, older adults are more likely to avoid the foveal area in order to distribute attentional resources to the periphery and are able to increase these effects of selection at the longer SOA. This suggests that older adults are using attention to offset visual processing deficits for peripheral information such as letter information in the reading process. The results support a two-process view of attention where attention consists both of selection and inhibition and provide evidence to support a theory of reduced inhibitory processes as a cause for cognitive slowing associated with aging.