Journal ArticleDOI
Conceptual Perspective Taking in 2- to 6-Year-Old Children
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This article found that children as young as 3 years of age can correctly anticipate the other child's feelings in certain simple contexts, such as a person at a birthday party will be happy, since it is generally shared knowledge that anyone at a party is probably happy.Abstract:
The literature is unclear and controversial as to when children are first able to engage in conceptual perspective taking, that is, to infer another person's thoughts, feelings, or internal states of knowledge (e.g., Borke, 1971; Chandler & Greenspan, 1972). Most studies have found that children younger than 7 years of age are not able to engage in this activity. Flavell, Botkin, Fry, Wright, and Jarvis ("apple-dog story," 1968) arid Chandler and Greenspan (1972) used tasks in which the child had access to information not available to the other person. The child was then required to make an inference about the other's restricted conceptual viewpoint. In both studies it was found that most children under 9 years of age were unable to engage in veridical perspective taking. Using stimuli containing less information and requiring responses with fewer linguistic demands, a few studies have purportedly found evidence of conceptual perspective taking in children as young as 3 or 4 years of age. Borke (1971) had children select a picture to match the affective state of a hypothetical child in a story. She found that children as young as 3 years of age can correctly anticipate the other child's feelings in certain simple contexts. Borke's study has been criticized on the grounds that her task may have been measuring some social skill other than perspective taking. A young child might accurately predict that a person at a birthday party will be happy. Since it is generally shared knowledge that anyone at a birthday party is probably happy, the child need not engage in perspective taking to correctly anticipate the other's feelings. To ensure that perspective taking is required for correct performance, the task must be constructed so that the child's perspective is demonstrably different from that of the other. As Chandler and Greenspan (1972) point out, "Without this important qualification, egocentric and nonegocentric thought result in the same outcomeread more
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Beliefs about beliefs: representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children's understanding of deception.
Heinz Wimmer,Josef Perner +1 more
TL;DR: A travelling salesman found himself spending the night at home with his wife when one of his trips was unexpectedly cancelled, and he leapt out from the bed, ran across the room and jumped out the window.
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Social Cognition, Prosocial Behavior and Emotion in Preschoolers: Contextual Validation.
TL;DR: For instance, Denham et al. as mentioned in this paper investigated the relationship among young preschoolers' social cognitive abilities, expression of emotions, and prosocial responses to others' emotions, finding that affective knowledge was significantly related to prosocial behavior in semistructured situations.
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How We Know—and Sometimes Misjudge—What Others Know: Imputing One's Own Knowledge to Others
TL;DR: This paper reviewed evidence that people impute their own knowledge to others and that, although this serves them well in general, they often do so uncritically, with the result of erroneously assuming that other people have the same knowledge.
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Limits on theory of mind use in adults
TL;DR: A stark dissociation is shown between an ability to reflectively distinguish one's own beliefs from others' and the routine deployment of this ability in interpreting the actions of others, suggesting important elements of the adult's theory of mind are not fully incorporated into the human comprehension system.
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Exploration of the autistic child's theory of mind: knowledge, belief, and communication.
TL;DR: This paper found that only 4 out of the 26 autistic children were able to anticipate that another child in the same situation would make the same mistake, and only 1 of 12 children with specific language impairment, matched for mental age, understood that others would be as misled as they had been themselves.
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