Educational Climate in Elective Adult education: Shared Decision Making and Communication Patterns
By: Catherine D. Ennis, Leslie K. Mueller, Denise, R. Hettrick, Jepkorir R. Chepyator-Thomson, Xiao L.
Zhang, William S. Rudd, Wei-Mo Zhu, Christopher Ruhm, and George Bebetsos
Ennis, C.D., Mueller, L.K., Hettrick, D.R., Chepyator-Thomson, J.R., Zhang, S.L., Rudd, W.S., Zhu, W.M.,
Ruhm, C., & Bebetsos, G. (1989). Educational climate in elective adult education: Shared decision making
and communication patterns. Adult Education Quarterly, 39, 76-88.
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Abstract:
Educational climate represents the social and contextual qualities of an organization as perceived by the
participants. The theoretical construct of educational climate encompasses a range of variables which have been
categorized as ecology, milieu, social system, and culture (Tigiuri, 1968). These categories are similar to the
elements of the andragogical process described by Knowles (1984). In this research, the theoretical climate
category of social system emerged as influential in an ethnographic study of an elective university program.
Findings revealed that shared decision making and communication patterns were instrumental in the quality of
the adult learning experience.
Article:
Researchers studying educational effectiveness in traditional school settings have long acknowledged certain
characteristics which contribute to student achievement. Components related to curricular and instructional
planning, teacher and student behavior, and student attitude have been addressed extensively in the educational
literature (e.g., Gage, 1978; Rosenshine, 1979). Rosenshine (1979), for example, characterizes effective
classrooms as those employing direct instructional techniques such as teacher control of content and space,
immediate focused feedback, and frequent monitoring of student performance.
Other researchers have looked beyond instructional components to identify social and cultural variables which
contribute to the overall educational environment. These variables have been conceptualized into models of an
affective construct termed educational climate (Getzel & Thelan, 1960; Moos, 1974; Tagiuri, 1968). Climate is
a component of the total environmental quality within an organization. In an extensive review of literature,
Anderson (1982) has described the current status of school climate research and the theoretical and
methodological problems involved in the delineation of this construct, A similar review by Randhawa and Fu
(1973) has focused primarily on classroom climate variables.
Most climate research has been conducted within elementary and secondary programs. Only two studies were
found which investigated social climate in adult education settings. Darkenwald and Gavin (1987) examined the
influence of social climate on dropout behavior, while DeYoung (1977) investigated the effect of climate on
class success at the university level. The extent of the omission of climate as a variable in adult education
research is surprising when one considers the potential impact of the educational environment in the attainment
of content proficiency (Knox, 1980), self-directed learning (Brookfield, 1986; Spear & Mocker, 1984), and
andragogical theory (Knowles, 1970).
While it is a simple matter in climate evaluation to calculate student-teacher ratios or to survey teachers to
determine their years of experience, it is much more difficult to map social systems and belief structures which
play a major role in student and teacher perceptions of climate (Tagiuri, 1968). In these latter instances, it is the
nature of the communication and interaction which determines the quality of the educational environment. One
research paradigm which has proven especially revealing in the study of this process is ethnography. The focus
of the research is on the description of the cultural community. In educational research, schools and classrooms
are viewed as communities which include many of the organizing structures which occur in social or cultural
groups. The methods associated with the study of cultural communities seem particularly appropriate for the
study of the group interactions which form the construct of educational climate.
The purpose of this research was the examination of components of climate theory which influenced the quality
of the learning experience in an elective program for university adults. The ethnographic study was conducted
by a team of eight investigators. Each investigator examined climate within a single university course over eight
class meetings. The data from the microethnographies were consolidated to describe pervasive climate variables
within the program investigated.
EDUCATIONAL CLIMATE
According to Tagiuri (1968), a taxonomy of environmental climate consists of four major components each
with a group of interrelated sub-elements. Central to the construct are the components of ecology
(characteristics of the building or classroom), milieu (characteristics of individuals), social system (patterned
relationships of persons and groups), and culture (belief systems, values, cognitive structures, and meanings).
The conceptualization of the climate construct in Tagiuri's taxonomy, presented in the left column of Table 1, is
considered superior to other conceptualizations because of the breadth of definition (Anderson, 1982).
Tagiuri's proposal conceptualizes a broad construct represented as a composite of variables nested within the
ecology, milieu, social system, and culture aspects. The ecology variables which include building characteristics
and school or class size are among the easiest to measure of the climate variables. However, studies examining
these variables have produced inconclusive results when student achievement functioned as the dependent
variable (Phi Delta Kappa, 1980; Rutter, Maughan, Mortimore, Ouston, & Smith, 1979). The milieu component
is composed of student and teacher characteristics and morale, Learner characteristics include demographic data
such as age, sex, and socioeconomic status. Teacher characteristics include salary, years of experience, and
hours of preparation. Objective measures of these variables have shown little relationship with student
outcomes (McDill & Rigsby, 1973; Rutter et al., 1979). The social system category focuses on relationships
among administrators, teachers, and students. Variables of rapport, communication, shared decision making,
and opportunity for participation are typically investigated (Walberg, 1968; 1969a; 1969b; 1969c; Walberg &
Anderson, 1968). Cultural variables within Tagiuri's taxonomy represent values and belief systems which hold
meaning for the participants. Variables of teacher commitment, expectations, rewards and praise, consistency,
clear goals, and emphasis on academics are among those with the strongest empirical relationship to student
achievement (McDill & Rigsby, 1973; Phi Delta Kappa, 1980; Wynne, 1980). Other cultural variables such as
peer norms, consensus among participants, and a cooperative emphasis have also been investigated with
positive results (Coleman, 1961; Rutter et al., 1979; Wynne, 1980).
Investigations are continuing to identify variables which interact to create a school or class climate. When these
variables are examined within adult or continuing education classes, the search for effective climate becomes
even more complex. Knowles (1972, 1984) has emphasized the importance of climate in creating an effective
environment in which to pursue the andragogical model of adult education. He divides climate concerns into
physical and psychological. His description of the former is similar to Tagiuri's category of ecology, while the
latter represents variables which fall primarily within the milieu category. Table 1 represents a comparison of
the categories in the Tagiuri taxonomy with Knowles' description of elements within the andragogical process.
It is interesting to note that elements in Knowles' (1984) andragogical process design appear similar to the
Tagiurian categories of social system and culture. Knowles' emphasis on involving learners in the selection of
content, instructional methods, and evaluation strategies (Table 1, Knowles #2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7) are de-scribed by
Tagiuri within the social system category (Table 1, Tagiuri #3). Knowles' description of the psychological
environment (Knowles # lb) is elaborated by Tagiuri within the social system and culture categories (Tagiuri
#3, 4). In most settings, the ecology or physical environment variables (#1 both models) are within the control
of the teacher (Vosko, 1984). It is the social system and culture variables within the Tagiuri taxonomy which
are most elusive and perhaps most potent in Knowles' concept of andragogical process.
METHOD
Design
To analyze the influence of social system and culture variables on the participants' perceptions of learning,
microethnographic studies of eight courses were conducted. The studies were designed within the symbolic
interactionist paradigm ( Jacob, 1987) and were conducted to describe the participants' interpretations of their
experiences within these courses. The symbolic interactionist tradition within qualitative research is responsive
to both the conscious perceptions of participants as reported in interviews and the unconscious meanings that
participants assign to events and interactions as observed by the investigator. The rationale for the use of this
methodology in a study of climate was based on the assumption that young adult students are active participants
in the learning environment, and thus both determine and respond to climate. The investigators sought to
determine which variables or patterns of variables were most influential in the participants' perceptions of
quality adult education.
Traditional ethnography relies on long periods of field work to examine social units within tribes or societies.
These studies contribute to an understanding of group values and behaviors. Researchers attempt to discover the
elements, patterns, and relationships which interact to distinguish the particular social unit. Educational
ethnographies (Goetz & LeCompte, 1984) expand this focus to educationally relevant issues and concerns.
When research is conducted within an ethnographic design, a single investigator typically spends an extended
period of time studying the social units or sub-units within a school. Microethnography as described by Treuba
(1981) involves brief, but intensive periods of data collection using observation and interview. In the
microethnographic studies reported here, a random stratified sampling procedure was used to select courses
representing a range of program offerings. Additional attempts were made to increase the objectivity of the
study and its relevance to the total pro-gram by utilizing eight investigators, each with a particular course
responsibility. A period of eight class meetings was selected for observation to minimize the effects of change.
No attempt was made by the investigators to project climate factors beyond those actually observed or discussed
by the participants.
Courses and Subjects
The study was conducted in eight courses within the physical education elective program at a large midwestern
university. Courses observed included skills and fitness topics which involved a cognitive as well as a
psychomotor component. None of the courses was required for graduation; thus, enrollment was voluntary, The
courses were taught by both university staff and teaching assistants and ranged in size from 15 to 25 students,
Twenty-five percent of the students were 23 years of age or older. Fifty-two percent were juniors or seniors,
while an additional 12% were graduate students. The students were equally divided between males and females,
Sixty-two percent of the students reported their grade point average to be higher than 2.8 on a 4 point scale.
Evans (1987) has argued that the needs of young adult learners in the 18-25 age group have been ignored and
"remain relatively unstudied" (p. 335). Young adults in this age group are just developing the lifestyle habits
which influence their patterns of adult behavior. Research findings applicable to students in this age group and
education level are critical to the understanding of adult learning. Patterns of self-responsibility for learning and
expectations for self-initiation are developed during secondary and postsecondary educational experience.
Careful monitoring of students' attitudes toward education should begin during this critical time period.
Data Collection
In order to establish a common set of protocols for the investigation, five training sessions for the research team
were conducted prior to the data collection. Sessions continued on a weekly basis throughout the data collection
period and as the results were analyzed. A total of 14 sessions were attended by the research team, Data were
collected in three domains described by Goodlad, Klein, and Tye (1979). These domains represented
perspectives of key participants and provided a standard of consistency for consolidation of results across the
eight microethnographies.
The first domain represented the instructor's perceptions of personal efforts to establish a particular climate and
the students' responses to that climate. This domain also included the instructor's perceptions of the role of the
administration in the development and maintenance of program climate. The second domain focused on the
experiences of students. These consisted of perceptions of interactions with peers and the instructor.
Data in both the teacher and student domain were collected through informal and formal interviews (Spradley,
1979). Formal interviews with teachers focused on four major themes: (a) rationale for class organization, (b)
the originator (administrator-teacher-student) of course decisions, (c) description of student needs and interests,
and (d) analysis of class experiences considered most relevant for students. Student interview questions
addressed five topics: (a) level of previous experience with the course content, (b) personal goals for enrolling
in the course, (c) nature of teacher and peer interactions, (d) evaluation of course relevance, and (e) perception
of necessary components of a rewarding course experience. Actual interview questions are available from the
first author.
The third domain consisted of written descriptions of each class compiled by the researcher assigned to observe
that course. Each researcher recorded extensive field notes of class events and interactions. Data included
descriptions of student and teacher behavior, course content, and class management procedures. The
observation procedure described extensively by Patton (1980) and others was employed throughout the data
collection period. Observation protocols followed a strict non-participant observer format. Researchers did not
engage in course experiences, nor did they interact with students during the instructional time. They were
instructed to change their primary observation location for each of the eight observations in order to view the
class from as many perspectives as possible.
Data Analysis
Data were analyzed using the procedures of constant comparison (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) and typological
analysis (Goetz & LeCompte, 1984). Constant comparison is an inductive process that occurs in roughly four
phases: (a) comparing incidents and generating categories, (b) integrating categories, (c) delimiting the
emerging theory, and (d) writing the theory. In the first phase, each of the researchers conducting this study
analyzed the field note and interview data to identify common elements or examples. Similar examples were
then grouped and rescanned in an integrative process to detect common properties. In the third phase, properties
were compared across categories and participant domains to test for the integrity of group membership, thus
delimiting the emerging theory. Typological analysis was used during this step to compare the emerging
categories with the classifications of the Tagiuri model.
The model category of social system was found to be useful in the classification of field notes and interview
data. Once the first three phases of the data analysis were completed by each researcher, the results from the
various microethnographies were consolidated. The three-step process was repeated in its entirety to discern
those categories and properties with sufficient evidence to be considered for theory development. Only
variables which were independently verified across courses and across participant domains were considered in
the fourth phase of the constant comparison analysis (writing the theory) and included in this article.
RESULTS
When data were compared with the Tagiuri taxonomy, the social system category was found to play an
influential role in the quality of the adult learning experiences. The variables of shared decision making and
communication were found to be most influential across the eight courses investigated.
Shared Decision Making
Shared decision making took several forms within the social system of the courses examined. Decision making
involved curriculum judgments related to content which would be included within the course and instructional
decisions to determine how content was to be presented and practiced. In shared decision making situations,
either the participants decide jointly on a plan or solution, or the individual controlling the situation gives the
authority for the decision to a designated person or group. In either instance, the managing individual has the
option to maintain control of the decision or to reassign it. In this study, the decision-sharing dyads or
participant pairs consisted of administrator-teacher and teacher-learner. The teacher was in a pivotal position in
these relationships, serving in both the responding role of the administrator-teacher dyad and the initiating role
in the teacher-learner dyad. Thus, the teacher was the beneficiary of the shared administrator-teacher decision
and the benefactor of the shared teacher-learner decision.
Administrator-Teacher Shared Decision Making Dyad
In the courses examined, administrators had attempted to make the course syllabus consistent across each
content area. Therefore, all students taking aerobic conditioning, for example, would receive essentially the
same content, regardless of the instructor. Some teachers, however, reported that administrative structuring of
much of the content limited their ability to become involved in content selection. They believed that they had
been employed to teach the course because of their knowledge and previous training. However, their skills were
utilized only in the instructional presentation, not in the selection of specific content.
Teacher-Student Dyad
Observers noted that teachers rarely shared responsibility for decision making with their students. This may
have been due to the fact that teachers, them-selves, had been given few content decisions by program
administrators and therefore had few to share. Teachers did share class management decisions with learners.
These primarily involved decisions such as where and with whom students could work. The observers reported
that students were frequently allowed to select a partner or to decide in which part of the facility they wished to
practice. Instructional decisions related to selection of teaching methodology were not shared with learners.
Teachers in the courses examined usually delivered content in direct teacher-centered styles encouraging
learners to "do it like this" or "practice this on your own for five minutes." Rarely were students consulted