Acknowedgments Introduction 1 Conditions for propositional knowledge 2 Minimal epistemic reasons 3 Justifying epistemic reasons 4 Foundationalism and some alternatives 5 Procedural epistemic rationality 6 Propositional knowledge References Index

This article describes abductions as special patterns of inference to the best explanation whose structure determines a particularly promising abductive conjecture (conclusion) and thus serves as an abductive search strategy (Sect. 1). A classifica- tion of different patterns of abduction is provided which intends to be as complete as possible (Sect. 2). An important distinction is that between selective abductions, which choose an optimal candidate from given multitude of possible explanations (Sects. 3-4), and creative abductions, which introduce new theoretical models or con- cepts (Sects. 5-7). While selective abduction has dominated the literature, creative abductions are rarely discussed, although they are essential in science. The article introduces several kinds of creative abductions, such as theoretical model abduction, common cause abduction and statistical factor analysis, and illustrates them by vari- ous real case examples. It is suggested to demarcate scientifically fruitful abductions from purely speculative abductions by the criterion of causal unification (Sect. 7.1).

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Knowledge and Evidence

Patterns of abduction

This article surveys work in epistemology since the mid-1980s. It focuses on (i) contextualism about knowledge attributions, (ii) modest forms of foundationalism, and (iii) the internalism/externalism debate and its connections to the ethics of belief.

Highlights of Recent Epistemology

This paper discusses the nature and the status of inference to the best explanation (IBE). We (1) outline the foundational role given IBE by its defenders and the arguments of critics who deny it any place at all; (2) argue that, on the two main conceptions of explanation, IBE cannot be a foundational inference rule; (3) sketch an account of IBE that makes it contextual and dependent on substantive empirical assumptions, much as simplicity seems to be; (4) show how that account avoids the critics' complaints and leaves IBE an important role; and (5) sketch how our account can clarify debates over IBE in arguments for scientific realism.

Putting inference to the best explanation in its place

Objective This desk study intends to update and complement the desk study review of the torture rehabilitation literature completed in 1998 (Gurr and Quiroga, 2001), emphasizing areas not covered by the original study but updating the torture rehabilitation literature from the publication of the original desk study. Some selected earlier references have been retained, but the focus remains primarily on the published literature from 1998 through mid-2004. This paper intends to stand alone but will refer back to original study. The target audience is those working in or interested in the field of rehabilitation of politically motivated torture survivors. Findings since 1998 Perhaps the most important finding is that either torture has increased worldwide or the exposure of torture events has improved. Publications: Much has been written about trauma and torture, especially since the terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C. on September 11, 2001 (9/11) and the Abu Ghraib prison abuses in Iraq. The print and visual media has fostered a virtual explosion of information about torture and terrorism. Even in the professional literature, the relevant books are too numerous to catalogue here and beyond our scope. Research on PTSD and on the prevalence of torture has been notable. In addition, much information is more readily available with the increased access and availability of internet resources and publications. Changing Nature of Torture: After 9/11, terrorism and its relationship to torture became an issue.The use of torture methods to extract information from suspected terrorists became controversial. Evidence of torture by "civilized" western countries was uncovered. Worldwide, the context of torture has broadened to include many aspects of organized violence, often occurring during war. Antiimmigrant sentiment has not improved and, if anything, has worsened in the US Europe, and in many other Western countries. METHODS: The Abu Ghraib prison abuses and alleged torture by coalition forces in Iraq has fueled an international discussion about what methods constitute torture. Assessment: Progress has been made on the legal and forensic evaluation of torture survivors, notably publication of the Istanbul Protocol. Questions raised regarding the validity of memory recall have implications for assessment of torture survivors. Prevention: Passage of the UN Optional Protocol and formation of the International Criminal Court are significant advances in the effort to prevent and eradicate torture. Gaps in the literature since 1998 After a quarter of a century and dramatic expansion of rehabilitation efforts worldwide, there is still no consensus about the efficacy of treatment interventions for torture survivors. There is little additional literature about treatment outcome, models and structure of rehabilitation services, design of services, cost-effectiveness, or sustainability of services. General principles of assessment and treatment remain virtually unchanged. Controversies over PTSD applicability for torture survivors persist. Restructuring of the desk study New Structure: In order to focus the desk study on health issues, the sections with this emphasis will be presented as chapters while the remaining topics, which are more political, research, or prevention oriented will be included as appendices. Language: en

Politically-motivated torture and its survivors:

Externalist theories of thought content are sometimes arrived at by reflection upon Twin Earth thought experiments of the sort made famous by Hilary Putnam and Tyler Burge. The conclusion many philosophers draw from these thought experiments is that certain types of thought contents are individuated, in part, by environmental or socioenvironmental factors.' This doctrine of "Twin Earth content-externalism" implies that it is possible for thinkers that are alike in all intrinsic physical respects to differ in the contents of their thoughts by virtue of differences in their environments."

Knowledge and Evidence

Citations

Patterns of abduction

Highlights of Recent Epistemology

Putting inference to the best explanation in its place

Politically-motivated torture and its survivors:

Is content-externalism compatible with privileged access?

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