Showing papers on "Doctrine published in 1975"

History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science

Abstract: 1. The origin of science 2. The origin of Christianity - its transformation on attaining Imperial power - its relations to Science 3. Conflict respecting the doctrine of the unity of God - the first of southern Reformation 4. The restoration of science in the south 5. Conflict respecting the nature of the soul - doctrine of emanation and absorption 6. Conflict respecting the nature of the world 7. Controversy respecting the age of the Earth 8. Conflict respecting the criterion of truth 9. Controversy respecting the government of the universe 10. Latin Christianity in relation to modern civilisation 11. Science in relation to modern civilisation 12. The impending crisis.

The eucharistic doctrine of the byzantine iconoclasts and its sources

Abstract: With respect to both the thoroughness of the actual iconoclastic measures and the incisive formulation of doctrine, the reign of Constantine V (741-775) represents the high point of the Byzantine iconoclastic movement. Though building upon the heritage of the first phase of "official" iconoclasm, during the reign of Leo III (717-741), the formulations of Constantine V and the iconoclastic council of 754 show notable advances over the earlier iconoclastic polemic, which concentrated almost exclusively on biblical prohibitions of idolatry. It is well known that this second phase of Byzantine iconoclasm is characterized by the emergence of the so-called christological dilemma: the image-maker either divides the two natures of Christ, and thus falls into Nestorian error, or eise he confuses the two natures, and thus becomes a monophysite heretic. From the council of 754 onward this argument is used, conjoined, to be sure, with the older, but still telling charge of idolatry. Less attention than it deserves has been paid by modern scholarship to the fact that this second phase of iconoclasm is also characterized by the emergence of a eucharistic argument: the bread and wine of the eucharist are the only true images of Christ. Accordingly, the present investigation will be concerned with the presentation and analysis of this doctrine, which, s we shall see, can afford valuable insight into the sources and character of iconoclastic ideology. The Patriarch Nicephorus, an early ninth-century iconophile author, preserves fragments from two πεύσεις, "inquiries", of Constantine V: these were subsequently utilized by the council of 754 in its formulation

On Being Present to the Mind: A Sketch for the History of an Idea

Abstract: I want to discuss a doctrine and a concept in theory of knowledge which has various manifestations from at least the seventeenth to the early twentieth century. The concept is that of direct or immediate cognition, the doctrine says that only what is like mind can be directly or immediately present to mind. This doctrine raises the question of how we can know things other than ourselves and our experiences: the concept of direct presence most usually had the consequence of making our knowledge of the world indirect, uncertain, or impossible. The directly present must in some way inform us about the indirectly present.

A preliminary study in computer-aided legal analysis

Abstract: This paper describes the prototype for a computer system that can perform a simple kind of legal analysis. The system user, who is presumed to be a lawyer, describes to the system a hypothetical set of facts. The system determines the extent to which these facts fall within certain legal doctrines (by syllogism), or near to these doctrines (by analogy). During this process, the system may ask the user for additional facts. The system then tells the user of its determinations and of the logic behind its conclusions with reference to judicial decisions and other legal authority. The prototype system communicates with the user in a computer language (called Preliminary Study Language) designed to be translatable into and out of English but natural-language processing techniques, based on case grammar, that are currently being developed in other research. As the basis for this analysis, structural machine models are built to represent legally-relevant human activity and doctrines of law. The primitive components in these structures represent simple things and relations (like persons, firearms, hitting, near, etc.) in the everyday world of human affairs. These things and relations are classified hierarchically into categories. They are assembled into facts comprising two things and the relation between them. Facts, in turn, are assembled into more complicated structures called situations, which are represented in terms of component elements, or in terms of alternative types, or both. These situational structures are used to represent the hypothetical facts being analyzed as well as the factual content of legal doctrines. The factual situations of specific cases provide examples and counter-examples that behave as alternative types of the situational components of more general legal doctrine. The prototype system contains representations for doctrine involving battery and assault. Analysis is performed by decomposing the situations that represent legal doctrines according to their elements and their types. When this decomposition reaches the level of things and relations, these things and relations, together with their situational structure, are matched against the things and relations contained in the hypothetical facts. The matching of individual things and relations is accomplished by reference to their hierarchical categorization.

The Law of International Institutions

Abstract: Global Institutions: the League of Nations, the United Nations, the specialised agencies and GATT. Regional Institutions: European organisations, the Americas, Middle East, Asia and the Far East, Eastern Europe and Africa. Judicial Institutions: from ad-hoc tribunals to permanent institutions, Regional courts, Administrative tribunals. Common Institutional Problems: International personality, the doctrine of sovereign equality of states.

Generals and Business in Indonesia

Abstract: THE INDONESIAN ARMY does not restrict itself to a narrowly "military" conception of its role. During the war against the returning Dutch after I945 the nationalist army was less concerned to defeat the enemy in battle than to mobilise popular support. In his reflections on guerilla warfare written in the early I950s, General A. H. Nasution expressed the view that "The guerilla cannot just emphasize fighting but must also stress political-psychological and socio-economic aspects.... A military leader will fail if he limits himself or is limited to military matters alone because he will be unable to carry out political, propaganda and economic warfare which are absolutely essential for victory. "' During the years immediately after the transfer of sovereignty in I949 the army stood on the political sidelines, but with the declaration of martial law in 1957 the army's non-military role expanded rapidly. During the Guided Democracy period the army was, with the Communist Party, one of the two main organised political forces and in its doctrine formulated in I965 it described itself as both a "military" and "socio-political" force. As a socio-political force, the army's activities covered the "ideological, political, social, economic, cultural and religious fields."'2 When the army took full power after forcing President Sukarno from office, this concept of the Armed Forces' role was popularised as the Dwi Fungsi (dual function) of the Armed Forces and later, in sanscritized form, as the Dwi Dharma (dual duty). Thus the army makes no attempt to portray itself as having "temporarily" taken power to protect the state in a crisis. As the army leaders declared in 1966, "The army does not have an exclusively military duty but is concerned with all fields of social life."3 The primary purpose of the Dwi Diarma doctrine has been to legitimise the army's activities in

The Origins of Guerrilla Doctrine

Abstract: The huge literature on guerrilla and counter guerrilla warfare published in the nineteen fifties and sixties was based almost entirely on the assumption that this phenomenon constituted a revolution in modern strategy. While it is perfectly correct that 'small war', partisan and guerrilla warfare had fallen into disregard in most industrial countries, it has, in fact, existed for a very long time; guerrilla fighting, for obvious reasons, predates warfare between regular armies.1 It has been argued that the history of guerrilla warfare begins with the Spanish insurrection against Napoleon since the partisans of previous ages were not politically inspired. But it cannot really be seriously maintained that the age of people's wars, of wars of 'national liberation' and of 'wars of opinion' begins in 1808, even if such wars had almost been forgotten in the eighteenth century. The present paper, part of a larger study on the history of guerrilla warfare, deals with the concepts of the theorists of small war between roughly 1750 and 1900, and their views on the utility and the limitations of partisan warfare. To regard these military thinkers as the precursors of modern guerrilla warfare is claiming both too much and too little. Too much, because only a few of them were concerned with the political implications of guerrilla warfare; too little, because from a 'technical' point of view they anticipated most present-day tactics and to regard them as mere forerunners is to belittle their part. The theory of small warfare (petite guerre) has its origins in the seventeenth century, being mainly based on the experience of the Thirty Years War, which, perhaps more than any other, had been a 'war without fronts', the Spanish War of Succession and the Wars of Frederick the Great. These early writings deal with the scope of the activities of relatively small detachments. The American War of Inde-

Neutrality and advocacy in policy research

Abstract: The naive scientism which has dominated federal policy research and most policy research institutes has become a self-blinding dogma, an armchair philosophy which fabricates and distorts reality and has failed at its task of understanding our social and economic problems Broader approaches are needed which do not artificially isolate and arbitrarily quantify selected factors but examine them in their social and historical context The vain search for “objectivity” should be replaced by an honest avowal of the interests being served The sanctimonious assertion of an undefinable “public interest” should be replaced by a definable fairness doctrine setting forth the status of the draft and final reports, project finances, and institute and sponsor controls Such a doctrine could provide the basis for a new professional consensus and self-regulation in the policy research community, and for new IRS tax regulations governing nonprofit research institutions

The Bible Canon and the Christian Doctrine of Inspiration

Abstract: In forming the canon, the church acknowledged and established the Bible as the measure or standard of inspiration in the church, not as the totality of it. What concurs with canon is of like inspir...

Comment on Rae's “The Limits of Consensual Decision”

Abstract: On the whole, I am very much an admirer of Douglas Rae's article. Indeed, if the editor will not object to my revealing this fact, I was one of the referees who recommended its publication. I do find myself with two objections to it, however, and as I suppose the reader will not be very surprised to learn, these concern its treatment of the general approach to politics which James Buchanan and I put into The Calculus of Consent.' These objections fall into two general fields: first, the intellectual history of the doctrine of consent, and, second, the methodological importance of Pareto optimality. With respect to the intellectual history, Rae, I think, may have been misled by the literature. The origins of the doctrine of consent or consensus, which he traces through political scientists from Locke and Calhoun, were actually quite disparate from those of the doctrine of Pareto optimality, which was drawn from economics, and there is no obvious reason to believe that the earlier political writers influenced the economists particularly. Pareto, for example, was an Italian engineer and Wicksell a Swede. Their educations would have put little emphasis on Locke, and I doubt that either had even heard of Calhoun. The positions they adopted were essentially efforts to deal with technical problems which had arisen in economic analysis in their particular fields. It was only after their positions had been developed that the resemblance between their position and that of certain earlier political philosophers was noticed. Even to this day there is a great difference between the two. I myself, for example, have never read so much as one page of Calhoun and have no desire to do so. Similarly, my knowledge of Locke and John Stuart Mill and even Bentham is largely derived from secondary sources. Buchanan, on the other hand, who is interested in philosophy, has done a good deal of reading in these areas, but I must say even in his case he is totally ignorant of the original text of Calhoun's work. The fact that there is some resemblance between the two points of view has, however, led to a number of recent writers, who are writing in what I might call the economic tradition, to refer to these political philosophers. In fact, what we have are

On the Necessary Imperfection of Creation: Irenaeus' Adversus Haereses IV, 38

Abstract: Irenaeus is the first systematic theologian of the Christian church. He earned this distinction by organising his exposition of the articles of faith around one central idea: that of Christ as the Second Adam and Perfecter of human nature. Interpreters of his Recapitulation (anakephalaiosis) doctrine routinely note that Christ's work brings two different benefits to the human race. First, humanity is restored to its status before the fall of Adam, thereby abolishing sin and its effects. Second, it is elevated or perfected to a higher form of being than that of the originally created human nature.

Hobbes's Doctrine of Method

Abstract: A persistent problem in the interpretation of Hobbes's self-proclaimed founding of modern political science is the nature of the link between that political science and Hobbes's understanding of modern natural science and scientific method. The intention of this essay is to suggest that Hobbes's doctrine of method reveals the unity of his teaching about science, man, and politics. The unifying role of the doctrine of method can be understood only as a function of Hobbes's intention to reform what he saw as the previously defective relationship between practice and theory. In the light of this intention, the doctrine of method will be shown to consist in a new rhetoric which links the resolution of the human problem to the conquest of nature facilitated by the new science of nature. This rhetoric will be shown to be the substantial core of the doctrine of method itself.

Pannenberg's Doctrine of God

Abstract: With the appearance in English of some of his most recent essays, it has become apparent that Wolfhart Pannenberg is now focusing his efforts to develop a theological program on the doctrine of God. Pannenberg has attracted considerable attention in recent years by his willingness to depart at several points from the mainstream of modern Protestant theology—especially his separation of the person and work of Jesus Christ, his argument for the historicity of Jesus' resurrection, and his overriding concern with future rather than present eschatology. Whether it is possible for Pannenberg to make these departures and still put together a coherent and viable theological program is very much an open question at this point, I believe. But the importance of a satisfactory doctrine of God in his program should be obvious enough: Can Pannenberg give us an account of a God who raised Jesus from the dead and who will bring in his Kingdom without violating the concerns which have weighed so heavily upon theology since the Enlightenment—that God must not act in ways incompatible with what man has discovered about the natural world and with what he believes about his own freedom and responsibility?

Trinity - The consummated covenant: Theses on the doctrine of the trinitarian God:

Abstract: In 1971 Herder and Herder of New York published my book The Christ,1which under the heading 'God and man, or God in man?' contains a study of Jesus Christ as God and man. This study implies a doctr...

Opening Government to Public Scrutiny: A Decade of Federal Efforts

Abstract: Within the past decade, federal administrators have been confronted by various new statutes and Executive directives affecting government information policies and practices. These recent measures stem from two fundamental principles of American government: popular sovereignty and the constitutional doctrine of checks and balances. In addition to providing a procedure for realizing the right of the public to petition for information, citizens are offered various options to become informed about the activities of the Executive

Should the patient be allowed to die

Abstract: In considering the patient's right to a certain quality of dying, this essay outlines how the legal and ethical justifications for passive euthanasia depend on the doctrine of acts and omissions. It is suggested that this doctrine is untenable and that alternative justifications are needed. The development of the modern mechanistic approach to death is traced, showing that a possible basis for an humane way of death lies in a reacceptance of a metaphysical concept of life.

Prelude to DetenteDoctrinal Change Under Khrushchev

Abstract: A fundamental reorientation of Soviet attitudes toward international politics took place during the Khrushchev years (especially 1956–1960), a reorientation which was a necessary—though certainly not a sufficient—condition for the present period of detente. An attempt is made to delineate these basic changes in Soviet perceptions of international politics through an examination of the evolution of Marxist-Leninist doctrine. Although it is fully recognized that the correspondence between private leadership views and the overt public doctrine is far from perfect, it is argued that a study of doctrine and the process by which it changes can serve as an indicator of parallel shifts in elite perspectives. To this end, an attempt is made, first, to set out the central tenets of the Stalinist world view, and second, to contrast these to the major revisions that Khrushchev introduced concerning: disarmament, the nature of “ruling circles” in the West, and the dynamics of international tension. A study of doctrinal revisionism in the Soviet Union provides substantial evidence of a continuing—though far from completed—process of growing Soviet acceptance of the existing international order.

The Elephant Butte Controversy: A Chapter in the Emergence of Federal Water Law

Abstract: X\/HO controls the waters of the public domain? This became a matter of national concern only after the westward-moving frontier reached the arid interior. At this point the prevailing common-law doctrine assuring riparian landowners a relatively undiminished, unpolluted flow broke down because water users had to depend on surface waters rather than rainfall. A doctrine better suited to western conditions developed as a by-product of the California gold rush. Goldseekers, who had preempted claims extralegally, frequently diverted streams from their channels to carry on placer-mining operations. In order to establish a shadow of legality for their actions, the miners turned to the time-honored frontier device of organizing themselves into bodies politic and adopting their own rules. In addition to prescribing methods for filing on claims, they recognized the right of the first appropriator of water to conduct it to the place where he could put it to use, irrespective of downstream riparian settlers. Congress casually accepted local mining custom and the accompanying water doctrine in the mining law of July 26, 1866, adding in 1870 that all future preemption and homestead patents were subject to vested water rights.' Western states interpreted this legislation as placing all non-navigable waters within their boundaries under their exclusive jurisdiction. The Desert Land Act of 1877 bolstered this interpretation by recognizing the right of entrymen to appropriate under state law any unappropriated waters

Dichotomy is contradiction: on ‘society’ as constraint and construction. remarks on the doctrine of the ‘two sociologies’

Abstract: 'We shall, of course, not take the trouble to enlighten our wise philosophers by explaining to them that the \"liberation\" of \"roan\" is not advanced a single step by reducing philosophy, theology, substance and all the trash to \"self-consciousness\" and by liberating nian from the dotmnation of these phrases, which have never held him in thrall . . . \"Liberation\" is a historical and not a mental action . . . ' ' 'Can people obviously incapable of taking serious problems seriously, themselves be taken seriously? It is difficult to do so, comrades, very difficcdt! But the question which certain people cannot treat seriously is in itself so serious that it will do no harm to exatnine even patently frivolous replies to it.'^ 'The opposites in a contradiction both unite and struggle with each other, and it is this which forces things to move and change. Socialist society is no exception . . . Classes and class struggle continue to exist in this society, and the struggle still goes on between the road of socialism and the road of capitalism . . . ' '

Towards a Theory of Properties: Work in Progress on the Problem of Universals

Abstract: Many philosophers have declared that everything which exists is a particular. There is a weak interpretation of this doctrine which I believe to be a true proposition, and a strong one which I believe to be false.