Showing papers on "Entrepreneurship published in 1987"

Female entrepreneurs : are they really any different?

Abstract: The entrepreneurial sector is now viewed as a significant factor in the design of strategies for economic recovery and growth in many nations. In the United Kingdom, for example, the Department of Trade and Industry was recently re-named the Department of Enterprise. Increasingly, all sectors of the population are urged to consider self-employment. In the education sector alone, many "Start-Your-OwnBusiness" programs have been designed for students, for the unemployed, for managers, for ethnic minorities, and for women. This rapid growth in the segmentation of the market has, however, been based on a history of research which has drawn evidence almost entirely from male entrepreneurs. Recent estimates indicate that more than one-third of the new firms founded in the United States are owned by women, yet, as a number of studies have observed, the data regarding female entrepreneurs is limited.2 Moreover, the studies which have been conducted are often based upon small, convenience samples which may have had a significant influence on outcomes.3 Throughout history, according to the norms of particular cultures, the roles of men and women in society have tended to be quite different. The nature of these roles is gradually changing in Western economies. More and more women are completing university and postgraduate education. They are also working full-time in greater numbers. It is important, therefore, to ask what effect these changes are having on the supply of female entrepreneurs, and perhaps more important, are female entrepreneurs significantly different from their male counterparts? The premise of this article is that the nature of any business (i.e., its trading relationships with customers, suppliers, bankers, and advisors) is "set at the start." Cooper's model is used to analyze the factors which influence the initial entrepreneurship decision and to develop a theory to apply to female entrepreneurs. Cooper's model incorporates three broad categories of influence: 1. "Antecedent influences" incorporate aspects of the entrepreneur's background which affect motivation, perceptions, skills, and knowledge. They include genetic factors, family influences, education, and previous career experiences. 2. The "Incubator Organization" describes the types of organization for which the entrepreneur worked immediately prior to start-up. Characteristics include geographic location, type of skills and knowledge acquired, contact with other budding entrepreneurs, and experience in a small business setting. In addition, Cooper cites the well known "push" and "pull" factors, such as job loss (push) and desire for independence (pull). 3. "Environmental Factors" include prevailing economic conditions (particularly the availability of venture capital), role models, and access to support services. ANTECEDENT INFLUENCES Motivation It is clear from the literature that the motivation of female entrepreneurs are similar in most respects to those of their male counterparts. Of the four motivations identified by Goffee and Scase, three-avoiding low-paid occupations, escaping supervision, and the constraint of subservient roles (in the incubator organization)-are directly comparable. Further, the fourth, that of rejecting male-imposed identities had had found little support in the literature. It would seem that females are motivated by the same need for money, wish to be independent, and identification of business opportunities as their male counterparts.7 In fact, Chaganti notes that when traditional personality tests are conducted, no significant differences emerge with regard to achievement motivation, autonomy, persistence, aggression, independence, non-conformity, goal-orientation, leadership, or locus of control. …

Enterprise Culture: Its Meaning and Implications for Education and Training

Abstract: The relationship between education and training and the currently popular theme of “enterprise culture” is explored. The expression “enterprise culture”, is at present ill‐defined, if defined at all. The confusions surrounding this expression relate in turn to the failure to make proper distinctions between entrepreneurship, enterprise and small business. These terms are defined in this context, as well as “intrapreneur”. Entrepreneurs are defined in terms of a set of attributes, some of which can be measured. Small business is defined in terms of ownership and task structure. Enterprise is seen to be something that means the exercise of entrepreneurial attributes in a wide range of different situations. Intrapreneurship is the exercise of entrepreneurial attributes within a large company or bureauracy. The relationship between these redefined concepts is explored and the issue of whether entrepreneurship can be socially engineered through education and training is addressed. A definition of what constitutes “enterprise culture” is then related to education and training. This link is discussed, both in general terms and particularly in respect of university and management education. It is argued that many of the values and structures pervading in university education and university business schools may be the antithesis of entrepreneurship. In this respect, the links between entrepreneurship as practised in small business and as fostered under the “intrapreneurship” banner in large companies is explored. Finally, policy objectives in fostering entrepreneurship, small business and intrapreneurship, particularly in respect of education and training, are reviewed.

The Social Origins of the Cuban Enclave Economy of Miami

Abstract: Recent field work on the origins of the Cuban ethnic economy in South Florida is reviewed in the context of competing theories of minority entrepreneurship. Sociological theories that emphasize contextual characteristics internal to the group itself appear to fit best the empirical evidence. They do not clarify, however, the dynamic aspects of the process—that is, the actual steps through which individual and family business goals become implemented. A typology of minority enterprise on the basis of background characteristics of its founders is developed. Implications of the Miami experience for theory and policies aimed at promoting self-employment among minorities are discussed.

Entrepreneurship, adaptation and legitimation: A macro-behavioral perspective

Abstract: Societal patterns often lag behind the constantly changing environment. Entrepreneurs, by seeking new ways of doing business, enhance societal adaptation towards the changing environment. This process of destroying old patterns and replacing them with new ones is usually not revolutionary, but instead involves the accumulation of numerous small adjustments. Entrepreneurship is thus studied as a societal function, not individual attributes. The degree of change entreprenuers bring about in any particular society reflects the extent which entrepreneurship is legitimated in that society.

A Preliminary Investigation of Female Entrepreneurs in Florida

Abstract: A PRELIMINARY INVESTIGATION OF FEMALE ENTREPRENEURS IN FLORIDA* During the past decade, there has been an increased interest in female entrepreneurs. Part of this interest is due to the tremendous growth in small business start-ups by females. Women currently own 26 percent of all U.S. non-farm sole proprietorships.1 According to a 1984 report by the Small Business Administration, females are starting small businesses at a rate five times greater than that of males in the United States. Between 1980 and 1982 alone, the number of self-employed females increased by 10 percent, compared to only a 1 percent rise for males.2 In fact, it is estimated that over one-third of the new companies in the United States were founded by women.3 * The author wishes to express her gratitude for the helpful suggestions made by two anonymous reviewers. This research was sponsored jointly by the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Institute and the Corporate Affiliate Program of the School of Business Administration, University of Miami. 1 G. Dessler, "Importance of Women in the Market,' The Miami Herald (January 14, 1985), p. 43. 2 R. M. Gaedeke and D. H. Tootelian, Small Business Management, 2nd ed. (Glenwood, Illinois: Scott, Foresman & Co., 1985), pp. 15-19. Dr. Neider is chairperson of the Department of General Resources, Management, and Organization at the University of Miami in Coral Gables, Florida. 3 G. Gregg, "Women Entrepreneurs: The Second Generation,' Across the Board (January 1985), pp. 11-18. A second major reason for the interest in female entrepreneurship arises from the assumption that women encounter difficulties in starting and operating businesses which are different from those faced by men. Thus, researchers, practitioners, and a few theorists have attempted to identify such barriers and/or differences. Basically, the research published to date falls into three categories: studies dealing with the personal characteristics of women entrepreneurs; reports which attempt to pinpoint specific issues/barriers which confront them; and studies which explore organizational characteristics associated with their business ventures. PREVIOUS RESEARCH Personal Attributes Studies investigating the female entrepreneur have concentrated primarily on identifying the unique demographic or personality attributes associated with them. Demographically, first-borns are predominant.4 Many female entrepreneurs had an entrepreneurial parent,5 and most start businesses in the service sector.6 Findings with respect to educational background, number of siblings, parental socioeconomic status, and/or marriage history are inconsistent.7 4 Ibid., pp. 11-18. 5 R. D. Hisrich and C. G. Brush, "The Woman Entrepreneur: Management Skills and Business Problems,' Journal of Small Business Management (January 1984), pp. 30-37. 6. Gregg, "Women Entrepreneurs,' p. 13. 7. D. D. Bowen and R. D. Hisrich, "The Female Entrepreneur: A Career Development Perspective,' Academy of Management Review, vol. 11, no. 2 (1986), pp. 393-407. Research in the field of personality attributes is disappointing at best.8 With few exceptions, most of the work in this area has been anecdotal or based on self-report assessments. Cooke and Wideman contend, for example, that female entrepreneurs are motivated (in order of importance) by the search for job satisfaction, need for achievement, challenge, and independence.9 However, such needs have been assessed simply by asking participants what motivates them, and are thus subject to respondent bias. Other researchers report that women entrepreneurs display high independence and Machiavellianism.10 Again, however, appropriate assessments were not used to substantiate the findings. 8 J. A. Hornaday, "Research About Living Entrepreneurs,' in Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship, ed. …

Resource Mobilization Through Ethnic Networks: Kinship and Friendship Ties of Shopkeepers in England

Abstract: Shopkeepers have social networks composed of ties to many others: Family, friends, customers, suppliers, employees, and moneylenders. We examine how ties to family and friends affect three aspects of entrepreneurship for Asian and white shop owners in four English cities: Business foundings, business success, and business turnover. Social ties are important for all three processes in both groups. An implication of our research is that the comparative study of immigrant and native groups shifts the focus from group differences to group similarities. Studies examining only immigrants may find apparently distinctive characteristics, but, in fact, many traits are common to all small-business owners, given the turbulent environment they face.

Entrepreneurship and Management

Abstract: ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND MANAGEMENT* A phenomenal increase in small business activity has occurred in the U.S. in recent years. In 1964, there were about 198,000 business incorporations. That number increased to roughly 319,000 in 1974 and 635,000 in 1984.(1) This dramatic growth is due not merely to expansion in the high-technology fields. In fact, many incorporations and new proprietorships and partnerships are in the restaurant, health care, and financial services fields. * "This study was supported by an A. Darius Davis Free Enterprise Award, University of Idaho. 1 Dun and Bradstreet, Inc., "Monthly New Incorporations' (various issues). Although various positive economic effects are associated with new business entries, one negative consequence is that many more new ventures fail than succeed. Some of the reasons firms fail were examined in two recent publications. Clute and Garman2 studied the effects of federal policy on three areas: variations in the money supply, the volume of bank loans, and changes in interest rates. Based on a regression analysis of 92 quarters of data, they concluded that two of the variables (money supply and bank loans) have an inverse, lagged relationship with the business failure rate. In a study restricted to smaller firms, Peterson, Kozmetsky, and Ridgway3 surveyed successful owners and managers, who reported that, in their opinion, the major cause of small business failure is a lack of management skills. 2 D. C. Clute and G. B. Garmon, "The Effects of U.S. Economic Policies on the Rate of Business Failure,' American Journal of Small Business (July-September 1980), pp. 6-12. Dr. Olson is professor of management in the Department of Business, College of Business and Economics, University of Idaho. 3 R. A. Peterson, G. Kozmetsky, and N. M. Ridgway, "Perceived Causes of Small Business Failures: A Research Note,' American Journal of Small Business (July-September 1983), pp. 15-19. This article focuses on the start-up and growth phases of entrepreneurial small businesses in order to identify desirable characteristics of key personnel and organizational design for both phases. In general, it appears that although it is not essential for an entrepreneurial small business to employ people with highly developed management skills (marketing, production, finance, and human resources) in the start-up phase, these talents are much more important during the rapid expansion of the growth phase. An entrepreneur is defined here as a risk-taking, innovative individual who establishes and manages a business for purposes of profit and growth, and an entrepreneurial small business is likewise an innovative firm created for profitability and growth.4 Small business owners who are not innovative and who do not concentrate on growth for their firms are not considered entrepreneurial. 4 These definitions resemble the ones proposed by J. W. Carland, F. Hoy, W. R. Boulton, and J. C. Carland, "Differentiating Entrepreneurs from Small Business Owners: A Conceptualization,' Academy of Management Review (1984), pp. 354-359. Key people and organizational design traits desirable for the start-up phase of an entrepreneurial small business are examined in the following section. The discussion then centers on the key people and design characteristics important for a firm's growth phase, and differences between the two stages are noted. Finally, case studies are presented to illustrate the proposition that managerial expertise is particularly important in the growth phase of entrepreneurial firms. START-UP PHASE The principal goals of an entrepreneurial small business are profitability and growth. These broad terms describe a firm's overall value system. Of course, more specific operative goals also exist and provide additional guidelines for decision making. Likely start-up phase operative goals include the creation and development of innovative products, services, or processes, and it is toward such goals that the entrepreneurial firm's initial activities and resources are directed. …

Managing the incubator system: Critical success factors to accelerate new company development

Abstract: The new business incubator is an innovative system that provides a variety of support systems to entrepreneurs to accelerate new company development, speed the commercialization of technology, and contribute to economic growth. This article presents empirical data on the incubator as a system for entrepreneurship and describes its resources, organizational structure, and objectives. It details ten factors related to managing this system effectively. The factors emerged from data collected through a national survey, on-site review, case study analysis, and interviews with incubator directors and managers.

Do Women Entrepreneurs Require Different Training

Abstract: This paper analyzes the characteristics of male and female participants attending pioneering entrepreneurship development programs, which form part of an economic strategy directed at increasing the quality and quantity of new firms. The participants did not need to have a business plan, finance available or formal education, but must have had a “reasonably feasible idea”. The results show significant differences between the characteristics of the male and female entrepreneurs, and the businesses which they form.

Evaluation of an Innovative Approach to Teaching Entrepreneurship

Abstract: Reports on the evaluation of an innovative approach to teaching entrepreneurship. The authors approached the design of an entrepreneurship course on the premise that the instruction should be appeal to, and reflect, the unique personality characteristics of the entrepreneur student, in order to produce a more effective course. Based on personality tests of 401 Baylor University students, a personality profile of the entrepreneurship student was developed. The students tend to be more autonomous, self-reliant, self-determined, rebellious, flexible, unpredictable, and unmanageable; they welcome change and new experiences. To appeal to and encourage these traits, the senior-level entrepreneurship course was designed to be unstructured, pose problems, require novel solutions under conditions of ambiguity and risk, stress independent study, and include a "frustration factor." The authors devised an evaluation tool, administered near the end of the semester, to assess the students' experience and whether course objectives were met. Found that most of the students: perceived the course as new and different and probably appreciated this fact; perceived the course's uncertain outcomes and enjoyed this ambiguity; felt the class taught them to deal with real-world ambiguity; believed the course was unstructured and preferred this format; had opportunity to exercise individual capability and liked this approach; enjoyed the opportunity the to exercise social adroitness and persuasion; enjoyed learning by doing; had their self-confidence enhanced; and perceived the course as relevant and enhancing their understanding of business. (TNM)

Entrepreneurship-Small Business Education in American Universities

Abstract: ENTREPRENEURSHIP/SMALL BUSINESS EDUCATION IN AMERICAN UNVERSITIES Education for entrepreneurship and education for small business management are not the same thing. Entrepreneurship consists of originating, or starting, a company, and management consists of operating an existing company. In many small businesses the "entrepreneuring" took place long ago. Some small businesses were inherited. Some were purchased. Nevertheless, the two terms are so closely associated that it is almost impossible to study one without considering the other. In university education the two terms are often used interchangeably, and it is necessary to examine course descriptions in order to determine whether courses are aimed at starting-developing-selling a business, or at managing an ongoing business. Birley, in studying the education of entrepreneurs, divided the field into three sets of potential customers (a) small business people themselves, both those just starting businesses and those managing ongoing enterprises; (b) advisors, such as bankers, C.P.A.s, and Government policy makers, and (c) conventional students. Each of the three has particular needs. Active entrepreneurs and small business people need information on services available and the laws within which they must operate as well as technical skills and advice and encouragement. Advisors need a conceptual framework for understanding problems facing the small firm, analytical skills to judge the viability of the entrepreneurial effort, and counseling and administrative skills. Conventional students need, in addition to coursework in the technical areas of business, courses specifically aimed at the peculiarities of new ventures and/or small business operations. Although many universities provide educational opportunities for members of the community through adult education, continuing education, or special short courses, the primary emphasis of collegiate education is the conventional student enrolled in a degree program. The present study was conducted to identify the state of university education in entrepreneurship/small business. METHOD The findings discussed in this article are based on a survey mailed to a nonrandom sample of 100 collegiate business schools throughout the United States. Schools were selected which were thought to be engaged in entrepreneurship/small business education, and generalizations should not extend beyond the limits of the sample. Although the sample was not statistically representative, it did cover a cross-section of universities. It included small, medium, and large schools, state and private institutions, and universities with a research orientation as well as those that concentrate more heavily on teaching and/or service. The questionnaire contained 31 items, many with multiple parts, and was divided into three sections: (1) general information, (2) graduate programs, and (3) undergraduate programs. The questionnaire was mailed to the dean of the business school at each university with the request that it be passed on to the appropriate individual or office responsible for entrepreneurial programs. RESULTS Responses were received from 76 institutions. Of these respondents, 70 (92%) were engaged in some type of entrepreneurial/small business education, research, and/or service. Table 1 presents a summary of respondents. For schools with entrepreneurship programs, the results in this and other tables are segmented by overall university enrollment. Table 2 shows the distribution of educational activities among respondents with some type of program. Only five schools reported graduate specializations or majors in entrepreneurship, all of them small- and medium-sized schools. Eleven schools had undergraduate specializations or majors in entrepreneurship, with programs offered by both large and smaller schools. Most universities, however, offer only graduate and/or undergraduate courses, with no specialization or major in entrepreneurship available to students. …

God and Production in a Guatemalan Town

Abstract: Acknowledgments 1. How to Get an Indian's Attention 2. Colony of a Colony 3. The Economy of a "Rich" Indian Town 4. Milpa Logic and Wealth Differentiation 5. The Production of Christians 6. Religion and Why Women Weave 7. Textile Entrepreneurship and the Economics of Culture 8. Conclusion Notes Glossary Bibliography Index

Self-Employed Women and Their Families: Time Use and Socioeconomic Characteristics

Abstract: SELF-EMPLOYED WOMEN AND THEIR FAMILIES: TIME USE AND SOCIOECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS Women-owned businesses in the United States numbered about 400,000 in 1972, but more than 2 million by 1980. Women also have increased as a percentage of small business owners, from 5.7 percent in 1972 to 26.1 in 1980. The aggregate of women-owned businesses accounts for over $40 billion dollars in revenue per year.1 However, gross revenues for women-owned firms are substantially less than those for similar male-owned firms. Between 1977 and 1980, the average net income of female-operated nonfarm businesses was about 31 percent of the income of male-operated firms. For seven major industries, the average net income in 1980 of female- versus male-operated and nonfarm businesses ranged from a low of 11.1 percent (retail trade) to a high of 54.7 percent (finance, insurance, real estate). Female-operated farms also tend to have lower receipts than male-operated farms.2 1 U.S. Small Business Administration, The State of Small Business: A Report of the President (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984), p. 347; U.S. Department of Commerce, The Bottom Line: Unequal Enterprise in America (Washington, D.C.: Report of the President's Interagency Task Force on Women Business Owners, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1978), p. 5. 2 U.S. Small Business Administration, The State of Small Business (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1984), pp. 351, 356. The research analyzing the problems of female entrepreneurs has been spares, but has divulged some of the reasons for the relatively poor firm performance. Among other things, women tend to concentrate in industries with lower profit margins, to operate smaller enterprises, and to operate more part-time enterprises. Women tend not to have gained the skills needed to operate a business in their previous paid employment, and discrimination in financial and legal markets has also hindered females' efforts.3 In addition, women tend to underestimate the time needed to run a business and have difficulty in balancing the needs of the firm and their families.4 3 R. D. Hisrich and C. Brush. "The Woman Entrepreneur: Management Skills and Business Problems,' Journal of Small Business Management (January 1984), pp. 30-37; T. Pellegrino and B. L. Reece, "Perceived Formative and Operational Problems Encountered by Female Entrepreneurs in Retail Service Firms,' Journal of Small Business Management (April 1982), pp. 15-24; E. B. Schwartz, "Entrepreneurship: A New Female Frontier.' Journal of Contemporary Business (Winter 1976), pp. 47-68; and U.S. Small Business Administration, The State of Small Business. 4 Pellegrino and Reece, "Perceived Formative and Operational Problems Encountered by Famale Entrepreneurs in Retail Service Firms:' C. E. Scott, "Why More Women Are Becoming Entrepreneurs,' Journal of Small Business Management (October 1986), pp. 37-44. Time management challenges entrepreneurs regardless of gender, but is especially critical for women. Like most male entrepreneurs, female entrepreneurs are married and have children, but unlike men, they still bear major responsibility for household work.5 Furthermore, self-employed women report more conflict between business and family than their male counterparts. These women feel that their husbands expect them to continue supplying the same level of household production as they did prior to opening the business. Female entrepreneurs' husbands rarely contribute to-either household production or the women's businesses, but wives of male business owners are often active in their husbands' businesses.6 As a consequence of time spent in household work, women may have substantially less time available for their businesses than do their male counterparts. The negative impact of household work on the labor force participation of women in general is well established. …

New Venture Strategies in the Minicomputer Industry

Abstract: Despite considerable recent interest in the processes and problems of entrepreneurship, very little is known about why new ventures succeed or fail. Even less is known about how the characteristics of organization that determine early success or failure influence later capacities for adaptation. This article presents results of an in-depth study of strategies employed by 108 new firms in the minicomputer industry over the period 1957 to 1981. It examines how different strategies implemented under different industry conditions are linked to early survival and failure. Then, it explores whether and to what extent these strategies persist in the face of changes in the firms' environment.

Evaluation of an Innovative Approach to Teaching Entrepreneurship

Abstract: EVALUATION OF AN INNOVATIVE APPROACH TO TEACHING ENTREPRENEURSHIP The need for research into entrepreneurship education is well documented. Questions which consistently surface are: (a) Can entrepreneurship be taught? (b) What topics should be included? (C) How should the class be taught? Ronstadt has documented the relationship between education and entrepreneurial success, and many articles describe what should be taught, but little research has been done on how the material should be taught. Some researchers believe psychological characteristics are unimportant in developing or strengthening entrepreneurship. As Stevenson notes, "the search for a psychological model [has not] proven useful in teaching or encouraging entrepreneurship." The present authors believe, however, that entrepreneurship educators must initiate change and not shirk "a responsibility they have to explore new directions and to do the most they can to develop a field that seems to be of greatly increasing importance to the economy and the nation." Consequently, they have structured a course and a delivery mechanism to appeal to the unique personality characteristics of the entrepreneurship student. The idea of a course structure which reflects the student's psychological needs is not new. DeCarlo and Lyons suggested an educational system for entrepreneurs that "would be highly flexible and would reflect the individual entrepreneur's need for autnomy, independence, and freedom." Primary and secondary school teachers have long known that certain teaching behaviors are related to student achievement and learning gains. As Gage and Berliner note, "The characteristics and behaviors acquired by students before entering your class will surely affect what they are ready to learn and how they will learn it." the course structure reported here represents a significant departure from traditional classroom patterns, based on the author's belief that a new approach would result in a more effective entrepreneurship course. BACKGROUND The course structure was developed after review of a number of studies which isolated the unique personality factors of entrepreneurship students and a model of the teaching and learning process developed by Gage and Berliner (see figure 1). This model requires the instructor to develop objectives based on the characteristics of the students before instruction. Before and during instruction, the teacher must apply both learning process concepts and motivational ones in accordance with the teaching methods chosen. Finally, after instruction, an evaluation is performed. The authors tested 401 Baylor University undergraduates using a number of instruments, including the Jackson Personality Index (JPI) and the Personality Research Form-E (PRF-E). They compared the scores of entrepreneurship majors, business majors, and nonbusiness majors. Entrepreneurship majors (budding entreprenuers) differed significantly from nonbusiness majors on twenty scales, and from business majors (budding managers) on eight scales. Later studies utilizing a modified JPI/PRF-E found entrepreneurship students' scores to be significantly different from business students' on nine substantive scales. These scales were Autonomy (self-determined, undominated); Change (ability to adapt readily to changes in environment); Conformity (self reliance and independence); Energy LEvel (active and perservering); Harm Avoidance (little concern for physical harm); Interpersonal Affect (emotional aloofness); Risk-Taking (willingness to be exposed to situations with uncertain outcomes); Social Adroitness (subtlety and persuasiveness); and Succorance (low need for support or sympathy). Based upon the study results, a profile of the entrepreneurship student was developed. They tend to be more autonomous than others, possessing a high degree of self-reliance and self-determination. They may also be more rebellious and unmanageable, depending on the restrictions inherent in the situation. …

“Making it” in America A Social Evaluation of the Ethics of Immigrant Entrepreneurship

Abstract: This article takes the concept of “making it” in America as the central thrust behind immigrant entrepreneurship. The social values behind “making it” are dissected, and closely linked to the capit...

Regional variations in entrepreneurship in the u.k.

Abstract: It is demonstrated in this paper that significant differences exist between U.K. regions in term s of some aspects of entrepreneurship, which is defined to be reflect ed in differences in birth rates of new firms. Furthermore, the take- up of four national, small-firm policy instruments varies positively with a theoretically-constructed index of regional entrepreneurship. Since there is an increasingly active public policy in the U.K. desig ned to create jobs in the small firm sector which does not have any e xplicit regional dimension, the paper shows that current policy initi atives serve to reinforce existing differences. Copyright 1987 by Scottish Economic Society.

British Business and the Transition to a Corporate Economy: Entrepreneurship and Management Structures

Abstract: (1987). British Business and the Transition to a Corporate Economy: Entrepreneurship and Management Structures. Business History: Vol. 29, No. 4, pp. 18-45.

Toward More Effective Training of Future Entrepreneurs

Abstract: TOWARD MORE EFFECTIVE TRAINING OF FUTURE ENTREPRENEURS Through the establishment of courses and programs in entrepreneurship and small business, colleges and universities have attracted and prepared students with the necessary skills to start their own enterprises. Through academic research, the characteristics of successful entrepreneurs have been identified, problems facing entrepreneurs have been defined, and solutions to problems are being developed. In addition, educational institutions have established links with business development centers, small business institutes, and small business incubator facilities. Given the importance of the relationship between entrepreneurs and the college campus, it is worthwhile to examine methods which might improve the effectiveness of entrepreneurship programs. The purpose of this discussion is to focus on the training of future entrepreneurs in university settings. The first part of this article reviews research on the psychological characteristics of entrepreneurs, followed by a review of learning style theory. The second part of the article links the research of learning style theory to suggest a "preferred' learning style for entrepreneurs. Finally, suggestions are presented for developing and improving entrepreneurial courses and programs. BACKGROUND Entrepreneurial Research A substantial body of literature indicates that entrepreneurs may have personality traits which differ from those of others in the population. Such research has led to the belief that entrepreneurs share common personality traits which account for their entrepreneurial behavior. McClelland's research characterizes entrepreneurs as individuals with a high need for achievement.1 Such individuals tend to set goals, achieve those goals through their own efforts, solve problems, and like to receive feedback on how well they have accomplished their tasks. 1. D. C. McClelland, The Achieving Society (New York: Van Nostrand, 1961); D. C. McClelland, "Need Achievement and Entrepreneurship: A Longitudinal Study,' Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (April 1965), pp. 389-392; and D. C. McClelland and D. G. Winter, Motivating Economic Achievement (New York: Free Press, 1969). Others have found entrepreneurs to have both a high need for achievement and internal locus of control.2 Individuals with an internal locus of control believe they can determine their own fate, within limits. Schere's research indicates that entrepreneurs have a higher tolerance than others for ambiguity and novelty,3 characteristics which may underlie the entrepreneur's impetus to innovate. Other traits which have been associated with entrepreneurs are a high need for autonomy, dominance, and independence.4 2 J. A. Hornaday and C. S. Bunker,' The Nature of the Entrepreneur,' Personnel Psychology (Spring 1970), pp. 47-54; and J. Pandy and N. B. Tewary,' Locus of Control and Achievement Values of Entrepreneurs,' Journal of Occupational Psychology (December 1968), pp. 649-662. 3 J. Schere, "Tolerance of Ambiguity as a Discriminating Variable Between Entrepreneurs and Managers,' Proceedings of the Academy of Management (Academy of Management, 1982), pp. 404-408. 4 O. F. Colling, D. G. Moore, and D. B. Unwalla, The Enterprising Man (East Lansing, Michigan: MSU Business Studies, 1964); Hornaday and Bunker.' The Nature of the Entrepreneur,' Personnel Psychology (Summer 1971), pp. 141-153; and D. L. Sexton and N. Bowman,' Determining Entrepreneurial Potential of Students,' Proceedings of the Academy of Management (Academy of Management, 1983), pp. 408-412. Learning Style Theory An understanding of the learning process may be gained by examining Kolb's four-stage learning model, as presented in figure 1.(5) 5 D. A. Kolb, Learning Style Inventory: Technical Manual, rev. ed. (Boston: McBer & Co. …