Showing papers on "Grammar systems theory published in 2016"

A Class Grammar for General Games

Abstract: While there exist a variety of game description languages (GDLs) for modeling various classes of games, these are aimed at game playing rather than the more particular needs of game design. This paper describes a new approach to general game modeling that arose from this need. A class grammar is automatically generated from a given library of source code, from the constructors and associated parameters found along its class hierarchy, to give a context-free grammar that provides access to the underlying code while hiding its implementation details.

Grammar Is a System That Characterizes Talk in Interaction.

Abstract: Much of contemporary mainstream formal grammar theory is unable to provide analyses for language as it occurs in actual spoken interaction. Its analyses are developed for a cleaned up version of language which omits the disfluencies, non-sentential utterances, gestures, and many other phenomena that are ubiquitous in spoken language. Using evidence from linguistics, conversation analysis, multimodal communication, psychology, language acquisition, and neuroscience, we show these aspects of language use are rule governed in much the same way as phenomena captured by conventional grammars. Furthermore, we argue that over the past few years the theoretical tools required to provide a precise characterizations of such phenomena have begun to emerge in theoretical and computational linguistics; hence, there is no reason for treating them as ‘second class citizens’ other than pre-theoretical assumptions about what should fall under the purview of grammar. Finally, we suggest that grammar formalisms covering such phenomena would provide a better foundation not just for linguistic analysis of face-to-face interaction, but also for sister disciplines, such as research on spoken dialogue systems and /or psychological work on language acquisition.

GLAsT: Learning formal grammars to translate natural language specifications into hardware assertions

Abstract: The purpose of functional verification is to ensure that a design conforms to its specification. However, large written specifications can contain hundreds of statements describing correct operation which an engineer must use to create sets of correctness properties. This laborious manual process increases both verification time and cost. In this work we present GLAsT, a new learning algorithm which accepts a small set of sentences describing correctness properties and corresponding SystemVerilog Assertions (SVAs). GLAsT creates a custom formal grammar which captures the writing style and sentence structure of a specification and facilitates the automatic translation of English specification sentences into formal SystemVerilog Assertions. We evaluate GLAsT on English sentences from two ARM AMBA bus protocols. Results show that a translation system using the formal grammar generated by GLAsT automatically generates correctly formed SVAs from the targeted AMBA specification as well as from a second, different AMBA bus specification.

Shape grammars overview and assessment for transport and urban design: Review, terminology, assessment, and application

Abstract: Shape grammars for urban design have attracted much interest in research and practice. Transport and urban planners increasingly deploy shape grammars, especially in simulations and procedural models. Shape grammars have multiple advantages due to their interdisciplinary and straightforward approach and low computational requirements. In addition, a rule-based design method and underlying fundamental research knowledge can potentially support future planning and design guidelines for handbooks and norms. However, little is known about the effectiveness of shape grammars in transport networks and urban environments. The proposed methodology aims at a future development of a robust and effective language for sustainable urban development. The theory of different fields is consolidated for a general grammar definition. Grammars require specified and corresponding objectives and application specifications for enhanced implementation. The proposed methodology for grammar rule assessment is based on elasticities to gain more insights in the effect of the rules. Elasticities allow comprehensive comparisons and verification between grammar rules. The paper reviews and highlights the key achievements and applications of shape grammars in cognate fields of science. Terminology sheds light on the definitions of most relevant terms including a general definition for grammar rules embedded in the language context. The paper differentiates methodological approaches in grammar design assessment and emphasizes a standardized approach for shape grammar definitions. The paper concludes with a detailed example for grammar rule assessment and potential future research.

Comparing Formal Verification Approaches of Interlocking Systems

Abstract: The verification of railway interlocking systems is a challenging task, and therefore several research groups have suggested to improve this task by using formal methods, but they use different modelling and verification approaches. To advance this research, there is a need to compare these approaches. As a first step towards this, in this paper we suggest a way to compare different formal approaches for verifying designs of route-based interlocking systems and we demonstrate it on modelling and verification approaches developed within the research groups at DTU/Bremen and at Surrey/Swansea. The focus is on designs that are specified by so-called control tables. The paper can serve as a starting point for further comparative studies.

Improving design grammar development and application through network-based analysis of transition graphs

Abstract: Design grammars enable the formal representation of a vocabulary and rules that describe how designs can be synthesized just as the grammar rules of a spoken language define how to formulate valid, i.e., grammatically correct, sentences. Design grammars have been successfully applied in numerous engineering disciplines and enable the automated synthesis of designs within a defined design language. Design grammar development, however, is challenging and lacks methodological support. In this paper, a novel method is presented that supports the development and application of design grammars using transition graphs. In these, nodes represent generated designs and edges represent grammar rules that transform one design into another. Rather than using a tree structure to represent the possible application of rules, transition graphs are automatically generated and used to help designers better understand the developed grammar. The grammar designer is given feedback on (a) the rules, and (b) rule application sequences. This feedback can be used to (a) improve the grammar, and (b) apply it more efficiently. Two case studies, a gearbox synthesis task and a sliding tile puzzle, demonstrate the method. The results show the feasibility of the method to support design grammar development and application.

A graph-theoretic implementation of the Rabo-de-Bacalhau transformation grammar

Abstract: Shape grammars are rule-based formalisms for the specification of shape languages. Most of the existing shape grammars are developed on paper and have not been implemented computationally thus far. Nevertheless, the computer implementation of shape grammar is an important research question, not only to automate design analysis and generation, but also to extend the impact of shape grammars toward design practice and computer-aided design tools. In this paper, we investigate the implementation of shape grammars on a computer system, using a graph-theoretic representation. In particular, we describe and evaluate the implementation of the existing Rabo-de-Bacalhau transformation grammar. A practical step-by-step approach is presented, together with a discussion of important findings noticed during the implementation and evaluation. The proposed approach is shown to be both feasible and valuable in several aspects: we show how the attempt to implement a grammar on a computer system leads to a deeper understanding of that grammar, and might result in the further development of the grammar; we show how the proposed approach is embedded within a commercial computer-aided design environment to make the shape grammar formalism more accessible to students and practitioners, thereby increasing the impact of grammars on design practice; and the proposed step-by-step implementation approach has shown to be feasible for the implementation of the Rabo-de-Bacalhau transformation grammar, but can also be generalized using different ontologies for the implementation.

Grammar Design for Derivation Tree Based Genetic Programming Systems

Abstract: Grammar-based genetic programming systems have gained interest in recent decades and are widely used nowadays. Although researchers normally present the grammar used to solve a certain problem, they seldom write about processes used to construct the grammar. This paper sheds some light on how to design a grammar that not only covers the search space, but also supports the search process in finding good solutions. The focus lies on context free grammar guided systems using derivation tree crossover and mutation, in contrast to linearised grammar based systems. Several grammars are presented encompassing the search space of sorting networks and show concepts which apply to general grammar design. An analysis of the search operators on different grammar is undertaken and performance examined on the sorting network problem. The results show that the overall structure for derivation trees created by the grammar has little effect on the performance, but still affects the genetic material changed by search operators.

A study on user-friendly formal specification languages for requirements formalization

Abstract: Formal methods and languages are used to prove the correctness of various industrial systems, especially mission-critical ones. They can also be viewed as a means to provide safety and correctness demonstration to the stakeholders of such systems. In domains such as nuclear power plant engineering, the benefits from structured safety evidences would seem obvious. However, most stakeholders in nuclear power industry are not even familiar with formal notations. As a result, to promote the applications of formal methods in practice, the first step is to make formal specification languages (FSLs) more accessible. With user-friendly FSLs, users can focus on safety requirements rather than on their sophisticated formalization. This paper, as a preliminary work towards an integrated framework supporting transparent safety demonstration, reviews existing approaches applied to facilitate requirements formalization and formal specifications. Moreover, the common features of user-friendly languages and their tool supports are also summarized.

A model for the semantics of component interactions of cyber-physical systems

Abstract: a model for describing the semantic interactions of components is proposed. This grammar defines a formal model that can be used to describe the behavior of the components itself as well as the interactions between them. A distinction between deterministic and non-deterministic interactions is used to emphasize their different syntactical expressions as a protocol or object.

Grammar Induction as Automated Transformation between Constraint Solving Models of Language.

Abstract: We specialize an efficient while linguistically savvy constraint solving model of grammar inductionWomb Grammars (WG) -, into an interesting specific application: that of inferring the grammar of an under-resourced language -Yorùbáfrom that of English, through grammatical model transformation. The model represents both the known grammar and the grammar to be inferred in terms of constraints, or properties, between pairs of constituents. This allows us to view parsing as constraint solving, and to use the parser’s output (namely, the information of which constraints failed and which were satisfied) as a guideline on how to transform the known grammar model of English into the (unknown to the system) grammar model of Yorùbá. Interesting extensions to the original Womb Grammar model are presented, motivated from the specific needs of Yorùbá and similar tonality infused languages. Our methodology is implemented in Constraint Handling Rule Grammars (CHRG) and has been used so far for inducing the grammar model of a useful subset of Yorùbá noun phrases.

Formal Specification Language and Agent Applications

Abstract: Recent computational problems in computing include several areas, which are prime candidates as applications of agent systems, such as artificial intelligence, logistics, and data analytics. Specification of such agent systems using formal languages not only results in reliable systems, but also provide for the validation of agent-based systems. The advantages of using formal methods in specifying agent systems during the entire life cycle has not been exploited in practice since the field is still emerging. This chapter has topics that cover the use of a formal specification language and discusses in detail the tool support developed to execute the specifications written using the extended Descartes specification language. Software agent-based systems come with various characteristics, such as autonomous, reactive, proactive, and goal-oriented. These agent characteristics fit inside various application areas. The application areas included in this chapter are in information management, electronic commerce, and medical applications where agents are used in patient monitoring and health care. Rather than building the applications from scratch, this chapter makes use of existing applications alongside of the formal specification language, the Descartes specification language to analyze the language features for crucial aspects of the applications. Descriptions of the case studies are explained to describe an agent system and the formal specifications written for specifying such a system. The applications consider agent systems that are defined using specific agent properties along with the interaction of an agent with its environment.

Strategic style change using grammar transformations

Abstract: New styles can be created by modifying existing ones. In order to formalize style change using grammars, style has to be formally defined in the design language of a grammar. Previous studies in the use of grammars for style change do not give explicit rationale for transformation. How would designers decide which rules to modify in a grammar to generate necessary changes in style(s) of designs? This paper addresses the aforementioned issues by presenting a framework for strategic style change using goal-driven grammar transformations. The framework employs a style description scheme constructed by describing the aesthetic qualities of grammar elements using adjectival descriptors. We present techniques for the formal definition of style in the designs generated by grammars. The utility of the grammar transformation framework and the style description scheme is tested with an example of mobile phone design. Analyses reveal that constraining rules in grammars is a valid technique for generating designs with a dominance of desired adjectival descriptors, thus aiding in strategic style change.

Discovery of a Recursive Principle: An Artificial Grammar Investigation of Human Learning of a Counting Recursion Language.

Abstract: Learning is typically understood as a process in which the behavior of an organism is progressively shaped until it closely approximates a target form. It is easy to comprehend how a motor skill or a vocabulary can be progressively learned-in each case, one can conceptualize a series of intermediate steps which lead to the formation of a proficient behavior. With grammar, it is more difficult to think in these terms. For example, center embedding recursive structures seem to involve a complex interplay between multiple symbolic rules which have to be in place simultaneously for the system to work at all, so it is not obvious how the mechanism could gradually come into being. Here, we offer empirical evidence from a new artificial language (or "artificial grammar") learning paradigm, Locus Prediction, that, despite the conceptual conundrum, recursion acquisition occurs gradually, at least for a simple formal language. In particular, we focus on a variant of the simplest recursive language, a (n) b (n) , and find evidence that (i) participants trained on two levels of structure (essentially ab and aabb) generalize to the next higher level (aaabbb) more readily than participants trained on one level of structure (ab) combined with a filler sentence; nevertheless, they do not generalize immediately; (ii) participants trained up to three levels (ab, aabb, aaabbb) generalize more readily to four levels than participants trained on two levels generalize to three; (iii) when we present the levels in succession, starting with the lower levels and including more and more of the higher levels, participants show evidence of transitioning between the levels gradually, exhibiting intermediate patterns of behavior on which they were not trained; (iv) the intermediate patterns of behavior are associated with perturbations of an attractor in the sense of dynamical systems theory. We argue that all of these behaviors indicate a theory of mental representation in which recursive systems lie on a continuum of grammar systems which are organized so that grammars that produce similar behaviors are near one another, and that people learning a recursive system are navigating progressively through the space of these grammars.

The Formal Complexity Of Natural Language

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On formalization of emergent behaviors in multiagent systems with limited interactions

Abstract: In this paper, we propose a formal approach to study the emergent behaviors in multiagent systems with limited communications and environmental constraints. Temporal logic and formal grammars are employed to specify the formal model of multiagents, and based on that an automated approach can be used to identify the emergent behaviors due to interactions among agents. Instead of exploring all possible system state spaces, which may grow exponentially, the proposed approach computes the local group polarization and the local group momentum for generating the emergent behavior set, and accordingly from which the emergent behaviors can be detected. To facilitate simulation and analysis, a MATLAB GUI is further designed to enable us to flexibly select control parameters in formal models of multiagent systems. Simulation results are provided to verify the proposed approach.

Formal language for statistical inference of uncertain stochastic systems

Abstract: Stochastic models, in particular Continuous Time Markov Chains, are a commonly employed mathematical abstraction for describing natural or engineered dynamical systems. While the theory behind them is well-studied, their specification can be problematic in a number of ways. Firstly, the size and complexity of the model can make its description difficult without using a high-level language. Secondly, knowledge of the system is usually incomplete, leaving one or more parameters with unknown values, thus impeding further analysis. Sophisticated machine learning algorithms have been proposed for the statistically rigorous estimation and handling of this uncertainty; however, their applicability is often limited to systems with finite state-space, and there has not been any consideration for their use on high-level descriptions. Similarly, high-level formal languages have been long used for describing and reasoning about stochastic systems, but require a full specification; efforts to estimate parameters for such formal models have been limited to simple inference algorithms. This thesis explores how these two approaches can be brought together, drawing ideas from the probabilistic programming paradigm. We introduce ProPPA, a process algebra for the specification of stochastic systems with uncertain parameters. The language is equipped with a semantics, allowing a formal interpretation of models written in it. This is the first time that uncertainty has been incorporated into the syntax and semantics of a formal language, and we describe a new mathematical object capable of capturing this information. We provide a series of algorithms for inference which can be automatically applied to ProPPA models without the need to write extra code. As part of these, we develop a novel inference scheme for infinite-state systems, based on random truncations of the state-space. The expressive power and inference capabilities of the framework are demonstrated in a series of small examples as well as a larger-scale case study. We also present a review of the state-of-the-art in both machine learning and formal modelling with respect to stochastic systems. We close with a discussion of potential extensions of this work, and thoughts about different ways in which the fields of statistical machine learning and formal modelling can be further integrated.

A preliminary study of Chinese hierarchical grammar development

Abstract: Grammar has always occupied an important area in teaching Chinese as a foreign language, and is considered foundational to communication. However, grammar only can represent fragments of thoughts, and the complete communication of ideas must be based on grammatical structure. As such, Chinese grammatical structure is foundational to learning the language. In teaching materials, grammar lessons should be arranged in an order that centers around the learner's needs. In particular, the arrangement of grammars within the teaching material is crucial for foreign learners, and should be undertaken with extra care. A digitized system designed with grammars as its functional orientation can meet the different needs of teachers and students of Chinese, as well as editors of Chinese teaching materials, offering strong support for the teaching and learning of the language.

Formal Analysis of Engineering Systems Based on Signal-Flow-Graph Theory

Abstract: Signal-flow-graph theory provides an efficient framework to model various engineering and physical systems at a higher-level of abstraction. In this paper, we present the formalization of the signal-flow-graph theory with an ultimate goal to conduct the formal analysis of engineering systems within a higher-order-logic theorem prover. In particular, our formalization can tackle system models which are based on undirected graphs. We also present the formalization of the system transfer function and associated properties such as stability and resonance. In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of our work, we present the formal analysis of two engineering systems namely the PANDA Vernier resonator and the z-source impedance network, which are commonly used in photonics and power electronics, respectively.

A graph grammar for entity relationship diagrams

Abstract: Databases are mainly used in many systems in order to store data. Databases in large scale systems are difficult to grasp their logical structure, therefore, visualizing databases are quite important. To the present entity relationship diagrams (ER diagrams) have been proposed and used in designing and managing databases. However there are not so many tools which are based on formal mechanisms. In this paper, we propose a graph grammar for entity relationship diagrams which are based on formal mechanisms by using graph grammars. We also describe an application of the grammar.

Machine Intelligence and the Ethical Grammar of Computability

Abstract: Since the publication of Alan Turing’s famous papers on “machine intelligence” over six decades ago, questions about whether complex mechanical systems can partake in intelligent cognitive processes have largely been answered under the analytical rubric of their capacity successfully to simulate symbol-mongering human behavior. While this focus on the mimetic potential of computers in response to the question “Can machines think?” has come to be accepted as one of the great bequests of Turing’s reflections on the nature of artificial intelligence, I argue in this paper that a closer look at Turing’s oeuvre reveals an especially informative tension between the pragmatic and normative insights, which enabled him in 1936 to formulate his pioneering version of the theory of mechanical computability, and his later attempt to argue for a simplistic notion of “machine intelligence” as an effectual imitation of the human mind. In fleshing out the source of this tension, I endeavor to show how the mimetic model of “thinking machines” that Turing eventually embraces is ultimately at cross-purposes with the normative-pragmatic insights by which he reached his original innovations in computability theory and combinatorial logic.

Business Rules Definition for Decision Support System Using Matrix Grammar

Abstract: This paper deals with formalization of business rules by formal grammars. In our work we focus on methods for high frequency data processing. We process data by using complex event platforms (CEP) which allow to process high volume of data in nearly real time. Decision making process is contained by one level of processing of CEP. Business rules are used for decision making process description. For the business rules formalization we chose matrix grammar. The use of formal grammars is quite natural as the structure of rules and its rewriting is very similar both for the business rules and for formal grammar. In addition the matrix grammar allows to simulate dependencies and correlations between the rules. The result of this work is a model for data processing of knowledge-based decision support system described by the rules of formal grammar. This system will support the decision making in CEP. This solution may contribute to the speedup of decision making process in complex event processing and also to the formal verification of these systems.

Embedded Systems Design Based On Formal Models Of Computation

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Data structures, from theory to bits: Using theory of formal languages to analyze structured data

Abstract: Formal language theory plays, in computer science, a fundamental role that allows, among other things, the development of one of the cornerstones of information technology: programming languages. They define the mandatory grammatical rules that programmers need to follow to create the tools that enable humans to interact with machines. Despite its significance, formal language theory is often taken for granted, even by software developers, who regularly follow the rules of their programming domain. Unless the developer is creating its own programming language, data structure, or describing the formal background of an existing one, he will not need to dive deep into formal languages, grammar or automaton theory. Those who do need to develop their own rules will first have to understand the theory of formal languages, and the limitations they impose. This paper will do an introduction to the fundamentals of language theory, their classification, restrictions and representation. Once this ground rules are set, we will use a worldwide known data structure format such as the JavaScript Object Notation (JSON), to formally define its grammar rules and automaton. All of this formal background will allow us to transform theory into bits, by developing an algorithm that will analyze streams of texts, accepting or rejecting them as they comply or not with the predefined rules. Finally, we will analyze the outcomes of this implementation, its benefits, limitations, and alternatives that could have been followed.

From ESSENCE to Theory Oriented Software Engineering

Abstract: The Essence standard combines a kernel and a modelling language for software engineering. It defines dynamic semantics of Essence by a mixture of formal and informal means. This paper presents a uniform formalization of the dynamic semantics based on a graph grammar and discusses various applications of this grammar. It is shown that solid formal foundation is useful for research towards theory oriented software engineering.

Grammatical Inference and Machine Learning Approaches to Post-Hoc LangSec

Abstract: Formal Language Theory for Security (LangSec) applies the tools of theoretical computer science to the problem of protocol design and analysis. In practice, most results have focused on protocol design, showing that by restricting the complexity of protocols it is possible to design parsers with desirable and formally verifiable properties, such as correctness and equivalence. When we consider existing protocols, however, many of these were not subjected to formal analysis during their design, and many are not implemented in a manner consistent with their formal documentation. Determining a grammar for such protocols is the first step in analyzing them, which places this problem in the domain of grammatical inference, for which a deep theoretical literature exists. In particular, although it has been shown that the higher level categories of the Chomsky hierarchy cannot be generically learned, it is also known that certain subcategories of that hierarchy can be effectively learned. In this paper, we summarize some theoretical results for inferring well-known Chomsky grammars, with special attention to context-free grammars (CFGs) and their generated languages (CFLs). We then demonstrate that, despite negative learnability results in the theoretical regime, we can use long short-term memory (LSTM) networks, a type of recurrent neural network (RNN) architecture, to learn a grammar for URIs that appear in Apache HTTP access logs for a particular server with high accuracy. We discuss these results in the context of grammatical inference, and suggest avenues for further research into learnability of a subgroup of the context-free grammars.

The languages of actions, formal grammars and qualitive modeling of companies.

Abstract: In this paper we discuss methods of using the language of actions, formal languages, and grammars for qualitative conceptual linguistic modeling of companies as technological and human institutions. The main problem following the discussion is the problem to find and describe a language structure for external and internal flow of information of companies. We anticipate that the language structure of external and internal base flows determine the structure of companies. In the structure modeling of an abstract industrial company an internal base flow of information is constructed as certain flow of words composed on the theoretical parts-processes-actions language. The language of procedures is found for an external base flow of information for an insurance company. The formal stochastic grammar for the language of procedures is found by statistical methods and is used in understanding the tendencies of the health care industry. We present the model of human communications as a random walk on the semantic tree