Showing papers on "Ingroups and outgroups published in 1987"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the independent effects of status differential on intergroup behavior and found that high and equal status group members were more discriminatory against outgroups and more positive about their own group membership.
Abstract: This study investigated the independent effects of status differential on intergroup behaviour. Using a variant of the minimal group paradigm (Tueland Turner, 1979), subjects were categorized into groups of differing status (high, equal, low) with two levels of category salience (high, low). Using Tajfel's matrices subjects rated the creativity of products ostensibly produced by ingroup and outgroup members. Own group identification, intergroup perceptions and self-reported strategies on the matrices constituted the other dependent measures. Results indicated a main effect for group status but none for salience. Equal status groups discriminated against each other thus replicating the minimal intergroup discrimination effect. High and equal status group members were more discriminatory against outgroups and more positive about their own group membership than were low status group members. In contrast, low status group members engaged in significant amounts of outgroup favouritism. Results also showed that social categorization per se was sufficient to elicit more ingroup than outgroup liking amongst all group members regardless of status differentials between groups. Overall, the results illustrate important aspects of the interplay between group status, social identity, prejudice and discrimination.
309 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a study of a sample of unemployed people is reported in which survey interview data were used to examine the differential effects of different forms of deprivation, such as egoistic and fraternalistic relative deprivation, on the number of stress symptoms reported by the respondents and their orientation to social protest.
Abstract: A study of a sample of unemployed people is reported in which survey interview data were used to examine the differential effects of different forms of deprivation. Two outcome variables were operationalized: the number of stress symptoms reported by the respondents and the respondents' orientation to social protest. Two different measures of egoistic deprivation (the perceived gap between personal expectations and attainments) and two different measures of fraternalistic deprivation (the perceived gap between ingroup and outgroup attainment) were also obtained. It was hypothesized that the measures of egoistic relative deprivation would predict the number of stress symptoms reported better than would measures of fraternalistic relative deprivation. Conversely, fraternalistic relative deprivation measures were hypothesized to predict protest orientation better than would the egoistic relative deprivation measures. Multiple regression analyses bore out these hypotheses. The results underline the importance...
209 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the influence of individualism-collectivism on the degree of personalization, synchronization, and difficulty that occurs in ingroup and outgroup relationships was tested using data on perceptions of communication in relationships with strangers (outgroup) and classmates (ingroup).
Abstract: Triandis' (1986) refined conceptualization of individualism‐collectivism suggests that this dimension of culture influences individuals’ behavior with members of their ingroups and outgroups. Drawing on his analysis, predictions were made regarding the influence of individualism‐collectivism on the degree of personalization, synchronization, and difficulty that occurs in ingroup and outgroup relationships. The predictions were tested using data on perceptions of communication in relationships with strangers (outgroup) and classmates (ingroup) in Japan, Korea, and the United States. The results indicated that individualism‐collectivism was related systematically to perceptions of communication in ingroup relationships, but its relationship to perceptions of communication in outgroup relationships was more complicated. To explain the link between individualism‐collectivism and perceptions of personalization, synchronization and difficulty in communication with members of outgroups, it appears that it is nec...
203 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a preliminary statement of a theoretical framework integrating psychological and societal determinants of justice in human affairs is presented, and the major part of the discussion considers the motivationally important circumstances that engage the unconscious psychologically compelling determinants and how their appearance in behavior is both shaped and legitimized by situationally prevailing normative context.
Abstract: A preliminary statement of a theoretical framework integrating psychological and societal determinants of justice in human affairs is presented. It is proposed that the social structure provides the rules of entitlement and decision making that regulate the course of routine social interaction. These societally based norms are representable in people's conscious thought processes. By contrast, the psychologically generated rules of entitlement, typically contradict conventionally accepted rules of thought and discourse and thus remain “unconscious.” The major part of the discussion considers the motivationally important circumstances that engage the unconscious psychologically compelling determinants and how their appearance in behavior is both shaped and legitimized by the situationally prevailing normative context. The final section considers some of the more important methodological, theoretical, and social policy implications of this social psychological theory of entitlements.
152 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of role ambiguity and relative group status in an intergroup situation where a superordinate goal was salient were examined, and two contrasting hypotheses were derived from Social Identity Theory: one (H1) predicted most favourable intergroup attitudes in the Control condition where lack of any clear differentiation in group roles might facilitate superordinate identifcation, and (H2) predicted least favourable attitudes in this condition on the grounds that groups lacked a distinctive identity.
Abstract: An experiment examined the effects of role ambiguity and relative group status in an intergroup situation where a superordinate goal was salient. One-hundred-and-fifty-six subjects in groups of three undertook a cooperative task under conditions where the groups' roles were clearly Different, Similar, or not allocated (Control). In addition, the groups' perceived competence at the task was either equally High, equally Low, or unequal. Financial rewards were contingent on successful completion of the joint task. Two contrasting hypotheses were derived from Social Identity Theory: one (H1) predicted most favourable intergroup attitudes in the Control condition where lack of any clear differentiation in group roles might facilitate a superordinate identifcation. In contrast, (H2) predicted least favourable attitudes in this condition on the grounds that groups lacked a distinctive identity. Support for the second hypothesis was found since friendliness towards the outgroup decreased with increasing role ambiguity. The status variable also had consistent effects. As predicted, mutual evaluations tended to reflect the consensually agreed status differences: least bias being shown towards high status outgroups, most by high status ingroups. Task performance was also affected by role ambiguity. Judges' ratings of the group products were found to be more favourable as role ambiguity increased, in contrast to the friendliness data. The implications of these findings for Social Identity Theory, the Contact Hypothesis, and theories of group performance are discussed.
149 citations
TL;DR: In a study conducted in two Hong Kong schools, two measures of social distance were obtained with respect to descriptions of eight target children who varied systematically in sex and ethnic identity as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: In a study conducted in two Hong Kong schools, two measures of social distance were obtained with respect to descriptions of eight target children who varied systematically in sex and ethnic identity. Results on both measures clearly supported a hierarchical model of category combination in that discriminations among targets based on one category distinction were greater when the targets were members of the respondent's ingroup on the other category dimension than when they were outgroup members. The pattern of categorization effects differed, however, depending on which measure of social distance was used. For a scale of desired intimacy of interaction, target sex appeared to be the primary categorization, with ethnicity effects subordinate to gender. For a measure of perceived similarity to self, the dominance pattern was reversed, with gender effects subordinate to ethnicity. Responsiveness to target sex was not affected by whether children attended a coeducational or sex-segregated school.
120 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors used matched guise technique to compare the ingroup and outgroup accents in a middle class version of Dundee, Glasgow, and RP English accents to teenagers from Dundee.
Abstract: It was predicted from social identity and self-categorisation theories that ingroup speakers should attract more positive evaluations than outgroup speakers, especially when both are of equal status. However, the ingroup may be redefined by changes in the levels of categorisation salient to the perceiver. In Scotland, both intra-national and international levels are relevant at various times. Using the matched guise technique, in three conditions each possible pairing of middle class versions of Dundee, Glasgow (both Scottish) and RP English accents were presented to teenagers from Dundee. On ratings of speaker status, likely employment, and solidarity there was a clear pattern of ingroup favouritism. As predicted, the ingroup accents were evaluated positively and out-group negatively. Thus, Glasgow accents were evaluated negatively when contrasted with Dundee accents, but positively when contrasted with RP. Moreover, levels of ingroup favouritism correlated positively with measures of identification with...
93 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a simple test of proportion and plausibility would produce more balanced and realistic appraisals of ethnocentric attitudes. But the task of examining each case is rather complex because ethnocentrism may manifest itself on individual and institutional levels.
Abstract: Sumner (1906), in a classic essay, considers ethnocentrism as a universal syndrome of attitudes and behavior. The 'ingroup' sees itself as virtuous and superior and the 'outgroup' as contemptible and inferior, it sanctions association with its own members and dissociation with others, loves and trusts insiders and hates and distrusts outsiders, and so forth (LeVine and Campbell, 1972). Ethnocentrism is essential for the survival of the group and for keeping its distinct identity, culture, solidarity and ability to compete successfully with other groups. Although they simplify and distort reality, group preconceptions and prejudices provide the individual with a sense of direction and belonging. This perspective regards ethnocentrism as a permanent, functional, positive and universal group feature. It stands in contrast with the more common and critical approach which conceives of ethnocentrism as an antonym for cultural relativism and human equality, and identifies it with intolerance, chauvinism and racism. These competing conceptions emphasise different components of ethnocentrism, where a simple test of proportion and plausibility would produce more balanced and realistic appraisals. To be ethnocentric, attitudes must contain an excessive or unjustified element of superiority, rejection or hostility toward an outgroup. For instance, mistrust is not ethnocentric if it is firmly grounded in facts; objection to intermarriage is not prejudicial if minority and majority agree on separation. Judiciousness is therefore necessary for establishing a case of ethnocentrism. The task of examining each case is rather complex because ethnocentrism may manifest itself on individual and institutional levels. Spontaneous, personal ethnocentrism consists of an aggregate set of individual attitudes and behaviours, whereas organized, ideological ethnocentrism refers to public policies and institutional practices (Lanternari, 1980). Both forms should be explored. One should also look into the ethnocentrism of both sides of the ethnic divide. It is a long-standing tradition in the literature of intergroup relations to concentrate solely on the ethnocentrism of the dominant group because it is more freely expressed, entrenched and consequen-
69 citations
67 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, 165 high school girls gave their opinions about abortion (direct influence) and about contraception (indirect influence) after reading a message advocating abortion said to have been written by either an ingroup (same sex) or an outgroup (opposite sex) minority and explicitly opposed by the majority opinion of either the ingroup or the outgroup.
Abstract: In a 2 × 2 factorial design, 165 high school girls gave their opinions about abortion (direct influence) and about contraception (indirect ifluence) after reading a message advocating abortion said to have been written by either an ingroup (same sex) or an outgroup (opposite sex) minority and explicitly opposed by the majority opinion of either the ingroup or the outgroup. Results show that there is less direct influence when the ingroup majority is opposed to the minority, and more direct influence when the process of identification is less involved. Indirect influence appears in an intergroup context where categorization of majority and minority into different groups is superimposed on their ideological dissent, which has the effect of allowing recognition of the minority's distinctiveness and validity over and above the discrimination that appears at the direct influence level. In discussing the results, a theoretical integration of social comparison and validation processes is proposed as a step towards explaining the diversity of minority influence phenomena.
58 citations
TL;DR: This paper investigated factors that enhance the salience of group membership and consequent ingroup bias and found that the tendency to favor the ingroup over the outgroup in evaluations and behavior has been studied in the laboratory as an analogue of real-world discrimination.
Abstract: The present experiment investigated factors that enhance the salience of group membership and consequent ingroup bias. Subject dyads, who were always white, were either competitive or interdependent with either white or black confederate dyads. Ingroup bias was assessed as a function of attraction toward the outgroup (experimental confederates) relative to the ingroup (naive subjects). The greater the difference between ingroup and outgroup attraction, the greater the ingroup bias. Results demonstrated that ingroup bias was greater when groups were competitive than when they were interdependent, and greater when the outgroup was black than when the outgroup was white. The findings suggest an improved methodology for studying interracial conflict. The tendency to favor the ingroup over the outgroup in evaluations and behavior, ingroup bias, has been studied in the laboratory as an analogue of real-world discrimination (Tajfel and Turner, 1979). The theoretical basis for much of this research is social-categorization theory as investigated and defined by Tajfel's (1970) minimal-group paradigm. In this paradigm, subjects are randomly classified as members of two nonoverlapping groups ostensibly on the basis of some trivial performance criterion, for instance, an expressed preference for paintings by one of two artists, or by the estimation of the number of dots in an array. The important aspect of these groups is that they are purely cognitive. The robust findings of studies using this paradigm demonstrate that outgroup members are evaluated less favorably and allocated fewer rewards than ingroup members, and that this behavior is maintained even when subjects do not benefit from such behavior (Brewer and Silver, 1978; Tajfelet al., 1971; Turner, 1975; Wilder and Allen, 1978)see Brewer (1979) for a review of these findings.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated self-definitions more directly and found that the degree to which a group label is used as a self-definition is associated with the degree of group behaviour expressed in terms of that group.
Abstract: Social psychological theories of group formation have traditionally focused on the affective aspects of group behaviour. Group behaviour is thus defined in terms of the attraction members feel towards each other and the group as a whole. More recent approaches have emphasized the role of cognitive variables, such as social categorization, in causing group behaviour. The process through which this might occur has been outlined by Turner (1982, 1984). He suggests that it is the acceptance of a social category as a self-definition which leads to attraction and group behaviour, via the stereotypic perception of the self and the ingroup. Experimental studies aimed at testing this model have not monitored self-definitions directly. Instead, comparisons in terms of group behaviour have been made between subjects categorized as belonging to a group and those not categorized. The purpose of the study described here was to investigate self-definitions more directly. Following Turner, it was predicted that the degree to which a group label is used as a self-definition would be associated with the degree of group behaviour expressed in terms of that group. This was tested on a sample of people associated with a real-life low status minority, and thus who would not be expected to exhibit group behaviour if attraction was the major determinant. The prediction was supported, and the results are seen as providing further support for a social identification model of psychological group formation. It is concluded that there is room for further applied and experimental research into the nature of self-definitions.
TL;DR: The authors investigated the impact of ethnic origin on the attribution of criminal offenses to faces seen in portrait photographs and found that ethnic stereotypes are a result of the way people perceive themselves and other groups (that is, the relation of in-groups to outgroups).
Abstract: This study investigates the impact of ethnic origin on the attribution of criminal offenses to faces seen in portrait photographs. The underlying hypothesis is that ethnic stereotypes are a result of the way people perceive themselves and other groups (that is, the relation of in-groups to outgroups) and that ethnic stereotypes directly affect a person's readiness to attribute particular offenses to given portraits. Thus, this study explores cross-ethnic and intra-ethnic offense attribution.
TL;DR: The authors examined the social categorization processes of between-group differentiation and within-group similarity in a dynamic intergroup setting and found that the traditional effect of ingroup favoritism was influenced by objective measures of performance (i.e., goals) regardless of the ingroup's relative performance.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine the social categorization processes of between-group differentiation and within-group similarity in a dynamic intergroup setting. Traditionally, these processes have generally been examined in static settings, and it was hypothesized that they may not operate in the same way when group members are in a dynamic intergroup setting. Spectators at four collegiate hockey games were tested throughout the games in order to examine ingroup (home team) versus outgroup (visiting team) perceptions. The traditional effect of ingroup favoritism was found with respect to between-group differentiation, but this effect was influenced by objective measures of performance (i.e., goals). For negative characteristics, ingroup favoritism prevailed regardless of the ingroup's relative performance. The results also demonstrated that a distinction could be made between ingroup favoritism and outgroup discrimination. Although the results pertaining to within-group similarity were ...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined limits to the ingroup favorability bias in the minimal intergroup situation and found that students were least favorable when negative information was provided and was applicable to both of their ingroups, compared to when the same negative information applied to only one or both of those ingroups.
Abstract: In the present study limits to the ingroup favorability bias in the minimal intergroup situation were examined. A sample of students from the United States received either positive or negative information about either one or both of their ingroups. The amount of information provided about the ingroup was also varied. Consistent with the experimental hypothesis, students were least favorable in their evaluations of the ingroup when negative information was provided and was applicable to both of their ingroups, compared to when the same negative information applied to only one of those ingroups. The findings support Turner's (1975) position that the ingroup favorability bias is motivated by a need to maintain or enhance a positive social identity.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors argue that social identity is more important than race, and that the reduction of conflict must follow the clarification of issues that come between ingroup and outgroup.
Abstract: Prejudice is an important factor in relations between Jews and Arabs in Israel, and exacerbates conflict between the two groups. Conflict resolution is often seen as achievable through a ‘human relations’ approach: the eradication of prejudice, empathizing with fellow humans. But experience of group encounters in Israel suggests that social identity is more important; the reduction of conflict must follow the clarification of issues that come between ingroup and outgroup.