Showing papers on "Nationalism published in 2008"

On Global Order: Power, Values, and the Constitution of International Society

Abstract: 1. Governing the globe PART I: FRAMEWORKS 2. The anarchical society revisited 3. State solidarism and global liberalism 4. Complex governance beyond the state PART II: ISSUES 5. Nationalism and the politics of identity 6. Human rights and democracy 7. War, violence and collective security 88. Economic globalization in an unequal world 9. The ecological challenge PART III: ALTERNATIVES 10. One world? Many worlds? 11. Empire reborn? PART IV: CONCLUSIONS 12. The state of international society and the pursuit of justice Biobliography

'Living the Brand': Nationality, Globality, and the Identity Strategies of Nation Branding Consultants

Abstract: “Nation branding” as a concept and practice has captured the political, cultural and economic resources of countries with established capitalist economies and emerging market economies alike. Drawing on in-depth interviews with nation branding consultants in London (UK), this essay examines the strategies employed in the creation and communication of a national brand identity. In its ability to assemble diverse motifs of heritage and modernization, domestic and foreign concerns, and economic and moral ideologies in the projection of national identity, nation branding appears to some as a “benign” way to communicate national interests, one that lacks the chauvinistic and antagonistic elements of more reactionary nationalisms. Yet the implications of the practice are far from benign. The essay advances a twofold proposition. First, by enlisting the symbolic resources and resonance of nationalist discourse which perpetuate the nation-state as a necessary frame of identity, allegiance, and affiliation, nation branding maintains and extends the nation as a legitimate entity in the context of globalized modernity. Yet the practice alters the cultural context in which national identity is articulated and understood. By transposing authority from elected government officials to advertising and branding professionals, by replacing accountability with facilitation, and by fitting discussions of the nation into categories that privilege a particular kind of collective representation over diverse expression, nation branding affects the moral basis of national citizenship.

What does it mean to be an American? The dialectics of self-discovery in Baldwin's “Paris essays” (1950–1961)

Abstract: This article looks at a number of James Baldwin's early essays. These include “Stranger in the Village” (1953), “A Question of Identity” (1954), “Encounter on the Seine: Black Meets Brown” (1950) and “The Discovery of What It Means to Be an American” (1959). In these essays Baldwin resolves the contradiction between his sense of himself as an individual and his racial identity by affirming both his American citizenship and his racial identity as a source of cultural strength and authority. He conceives of race in dialectical terms, with the African American as the dynamic agent in a process envisaged as leading to an overcoming of both whiteness and blackness in favour of a reformulated American nationalism.

The Oxford Handbook of Political Theory

Abstract: I CONTEMPORARY CURRENTS II THE LEGACY OF THE PAST III POLITICAL THEORY IN THE WORLD IV STATE AND PEOPLE V JUSTICE, EQUALITY, AND FREEDOM VI PLURALISM, MULTICULTURALISM, AND NATIONALISM VII CLAIMS IN A GLOBAL CONTEXT VIII THE BODY POLITIC IX TESTING THE BOUNDARIES X OLD AND NEW

From ‘Class’ to ‘Social Strata': grasping the social totality in reform-era China

Abstract: Reform era China has witnessed the simultaneous production of a middle class and increasing socioeconomic inequality. The ideological counterpart of this development is a new form of cultural nationalism that stands in striking contrast to Maoist developmentalism and in striking conformity with neoliberal logics. This article explores this shift in Chinese nationalism and national ideology by looking at the rejection of the language of class and the adoption of social strata as the language of social analysis. This shift has produced a new model of citizenship which seeks to manage the newly stratified society by articulating inequality as cultural difference in a hierarchy of national belonging. At the same time this neoliberal ethos is in dialogue with calls for social responsibility by left-liberal intellectuals in the wake of a rising number of popular protests and a growing concern about social inequality. This essay will discuss aspects of middle-class formation in China's economic reforms,...

The Invention of the Jewish People

Abstract: 'All modern nation states have a story of their origins, passed down through both official and popular culture, and yet few of these accounts have proved as divisive and influential as the Israeli national myth. The well-known tale of Jewish exile at the hands of the Romans during the first century AD, and the assertion of both cultural and racial continuity through to the Jewish people of the present day, resonates far beyond Israel's borders. Despite its use as a justification for Jewish settlement in Palestine and the project of a Greater Israel, there have been few scholarly investigations into the historical accuracy of the story as a whole. In this bold and ambitious new book, Shlomo Sand shows that the Israeli national myth has its origins in the nineteenth century, rather than in biblical times - when Jewish historians, like scholars in many other cultures, reconstituted an imagined people in order to model a future nation. Sand forensically dissects the official story - and demonstrates the construction of a nationalist myth and the collective mystification that this requires. A bestseller in Israel and France, Shlomo Sand's book has sparked a widespread and lively debate. Should the Jewish people regard themselves as genetically distinct and identifiable across the millennia - or should that doctrine now be left behind and if the myth of the Jewish state is dismantled, could this open a path toward a more inclusive Israeli state, content within its borders?'

Emigrant Nation: The Making of Italy Abroad

Abstract: * Acknowledgments * Introduction: The Program of Emigrant Colonialism *1. From Africa to the Americas *2. The Great Ethnographic Empire *3. Migration and Money *4. The Language of Dante *5. For Religion and for the Fatherland *6. Emigration and the New Nationalism *7. Earthquake, Pestilence, and World War * Conclusion: Toward a Global Nation * Appendix: Maps and Figures * Notes

The Foundations of Ethnic Politics: Separatism of States and Nations in Eurasia and the World

Abstract: Despite implicating ethnicity in everything from civil war to economic failure, researchers seldom consult psychological research when addressing the most basic question: What is ethnicity? The result is a radical scholarly divide generating contradictory recommendations for solving ethnic conflict. Research into how the human brain actually works demands a revision of existing schools of thought. Hale argues ethnic identity is a cognitive uncertainty-reduction device with special capacity to exacerbate, but not cause, collective action problems. This produces a new general theory of ethnic conflict that can improve both understanding and practice. A deep study of separatism in the USSR and CIS demonstrates the theory's potential, mobilizing evidence from elite interviews, three local languages, and mass surveys. The outcome significantly reinterprets nationalism's role in CIS relations and the USSR's breakup, which turns out to have been a far more contingent event than commonly recognized.

Order, conflict, and violence

Abstract: Preface 1. Introduction: integrating the study of order, conflict, and violence Stathis N. Kalyvas, Ian Shapiro and Tarek Masoud Part I. Creating, Maintaining, and Restoring Order: 2. Probing the sources of political order Robert H. Bates 3. Attaining social order in Iraq Michael Hechter and Nika Kabiri 4. Factors impeding the effectiveness of partition in South Asia and the Palestine mandate Lucy Chester 5. The social order of violence in Chicago and Stockholm neighborhoods: a comparative inquiry Robert J. Sampson and Per-Olof H. Wikstroem 6. Traditions of justice in war: the modern debate in historical perspective Karma Nabulsi 7. Problems and prospects for democratic settlements: South Africa as a model for the Middle East and Northern Ireland? Courtney Jung, Ellen Lust-Okar and Ian Shapiro Part II. Challenging, Transforming, and Destroying Order: 8. Civil wars and guerilla warfare in the contemporary world: toward a joint theory of motivations and opportunities Carles Boix 9. Clausewitz vindicated? Economics and politics in the Colombian war Francisco Gutierrez Sanin 10. Articulating the geo-cultural logic of nationalist insurgency Lars-Erik Cederman 11. Which group identities lead to most violence? Evidence from India Steven I. Wilkinson 12. Order in disorder: a micro-comparative study of genocidal dynamics in Rwanda Scott Straus 13. Sexual violence during war: toward an understanding of variation Elisabeth Jean Wood 14. 'Military necessity' and the laws of war in imperial Germany Isabel V. Hull 15. Preconditions of international normative change: implications for order and violence Jack L. Snyder and Leslie Vinjamuri 16. Promises and pitfalls of an emerging research program: the microdynamics of civil war Stathis N. Kalyvas.

Sowing Patriotism, But Reaping Nationalism? Consequences of Exposure to the American Flag

Abstract: The American flag is a frequently displayed national symbol in the United States. Given its high visibility and importance, the present research examines the consequences of exposure to the flag on Americans' sense of national attachment. We hypothesized that the flag would increase patriotism, defined as love and commitment to one's country, and nationalism, defined as a sense of superiority over others. Two experimental studies supported the idea that the American flag increased nationalism, but not necessarily patriotism. The discussion focuses on the practices surrounding the American flag and its implications for the repro duction of American national identity.

Cosmopolitanism and nationalism

Abstract: Ernest Gellner was, among many other things, a cosmopolitan – both intuitively and by conscious commitment. He was also one of the great analysts of nationalism in our age. I hope my analysis of some problematic and promising relationships between these two clusters of ideas reflects appropriately the huge debt all students of these topics owe Gellner. But there is another sense in which Gellner is an apt exemplar. He was nearly equally philosopher, anthropologist, and sociologist. And I want at least to suggest philosophical, anthropological, and sociological dimensions in contemporary cosmopolitan discourse and suggest that all three need to command our attention. We need to achieve a certain disciplinary cosmopolitanism, which, I would suggest, does not require us to give up nationalist attachments to our disciplines but does require us to reach beyond them and sometimes look critically at them. Cosmopolitanism has become an enormously popular rhetorical vehicle for claiming at once to be already global and to have the highest ethical aspirations for what globalisation can offer. It names a virtue of considerable importance. But, and these are my themes, it is not at all clear (a) that cosmopolitanism is quite so different from nationalism as sometimes supposed, (b) whether cosmopolitanism is really supplanting nationalism in global politics, and (c) whether cosmopolitanism is an ethical complement to politics, or in some usages a substitution of ethics for politics.

For Kin or Country: Xenophobia, Nationalism, and War

Abstract: AcknowledgmentsList of Tables and FiguresIntroduction to the 2015 EditionIntroduction1. Irredentism and Its Absence: International Presures Versus Domestic Dynamics2. Dueling Irredentisms: Greater Croatia and Greater Serbia3. Reunification at Any Price: Armenia and Nagorno-Karabakh4. Pushing the Envelope: Hungary's Assertive Attention to Kin5. Romania's Restraint? Avoiding the Worst Through Domestic Scapegoating6. Breaking Up Is Hard to Do: Russia and Its Kin in the Near Abroad7. War and Peace in Eastern Europe, the Former Soviet Union, and Beyond8. Findings and ImplicationsReferencesIndex

Kidnapped Souls: National Indifference and the Battle for Children in the Bohemian Lands, 1900–1948

Abstract: Throughout the nineteenth and into the early decades of the twentieth century, it was common for rural and working-class parents in the Czech-German borderlands to ensure that their children were bilingual by sending them to live with families who spoke the "other" language. As nationalism became a more potent force in Central Europe, however, such practices troubled pro-German and pro-Czech activists, who feared that the children born to their nation could literally be "lost" or "kidnapped" from the national community through such experiences and, more generally, by parents who were either flexible about national belonging or altogether indifferent to it. Highlighting this indifference to nationalism-and concerns about such apathy among nationalists-Kidnapped Souls offers a surprising new perspective on Central European politics and society in the first half of the twentieth century. Drawing on Austrian, Czech, and German archives, Tara Zahra shows how nationalists in the Bohemian Lands worked to forge political cultures in which children belonged more rightfully to the national collective than to their parents. Through their educational and social activism to fix the boundaries of nation and family, Zahra finds, Czech and German nationalists reveal the set of beliefs they shared about children, family, democracy, minority rights, and the relationship between the individual and the collective. Zahra shows that by 1939 a vigorous tradition of Czech-German nationalist competition over children had created cultures that would shape the policies of the Nazi occupation and the Czech response to it. The book's concluding chapter weighs the prehistory and consequences of the postwar expulsion of German families from the Bohemian Lands. Kidnapped Souls is a significant contribution to our understanding of the genealogy of modern nationalism in Central Europe and a groundbreaking exploration of the ways in which children have been the objects of political contestation when national communities have sought to shape, or to reshape, their futures.

The Returns of Zionism: Myths, Politics and Scholarship in Israel

Abstract: In this original and wide-ranging study, Gabriel Piterberg examines the ideology and literature behind the colonization of Palestine, from the late nineteenth century to the present. Exploring Zionism's origins in Central-Eastern European nationalism and settler movements, he shows how its texts can be placed within a wider discourse of western colonization. Piterberg revisits the work of Theodor Herzl, Gershom Scholem, Anita Shapira and David Ben-Gurion, among other thinkers influential in the formation of the Zionist myth, to break open prevailing views of Zionism. He demonstrates that it was in fact unexceptional, expressing a consciousness and imagination typical of colonial settler movement. Shaped by European ideological currents and the realities of colonial life, Zionism constructed its own story as a unique and impregnable one, in the process excluding the voices of an indigenous people - the Palestinian Arabs.

Schooling Passions: Nation, History, and Language in Contemporary Western India

Abstract: Schooling Passions explores an important, yet often overlooked dimension of nationalism - its embodied and emotional components. It does so by focusing on another oft-neglected area, that of elementary education in the modern state. Through an ethnographic study of schools in western India, Veronique Benei examines the idioms through which teachers, students, and parents make meaning of their political world. She articulates how urban middle- and lower-class citizens negotiate the processes of self-making through the minutiae of daily life at school and extracurricular activities, ranging from school trips to competitions and parent gatherings. To document how processes of identity formation are embodied, Benei draws upon cultural repertoires of emotionality. This book shifts the typical focus of attention away from communal violence onto everyday "banal nationalism." Paying due attention to the formulation of "senses of belonging," this book explores the sensory production and daily manufacture of nationhood and citizenship and how nationalism is nurtured in a nation's youth.

The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey

Abstract: Within the politics of nationalism and nation-building, the emigration of ethnic and religious minorities, whether voluntary or involuntary, appears to be a commonly occurring practice. After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in the early twentieth century, modern Turkey still carried the legacy of a multi-ethnic, multi-religious diversity in which its Armenian, Greek and Jewish communities had official minority status based upon the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne. However, throughout the twentieth century, Turkey's non-Muslim minority populations have undergone a mass emigration experience in which thousands of their numbers have migrated to various countries around the globe. While in the 1920s the population of non-Muslims in the country was close to 3 per cent of the total, today it has dropped to less than two per thousand. This article analyses the emigration of non-Muslim people from Turkey and relates this movement to the wider context of nation-building in the country.

The Politics of Language and Nationalism in Modern Central Europe

Abstract: Foreword P.Burke Author Preface Introduction Language in Central Europe: An Overview The Broader Linguistic and Cultural Context of Central Europe PART I: CENTRAL EUROPEAN POLITICS AND LANGUAGES IN THE LONG NINETEENTH CENTURY The Polish Case: From Natio to Nation The Hungarian Case: From Natio to the Ersatz Nation-state The Czech Case: From the Bohemian Slavophone Populus to Czech Nationalism and the Czechoslovak Nation The Slovak Case: From Upper Hungary's Slavophone populus to Slovak nationalism and the Czechoslovak nation PART II: NATIONALISMS AND LANGUAGE IN THE SHORT TWENTIETH CENTURY The Polish Nation: From a Multiethnic to an Ethnically Homogenous Nation-State The Hungarian Nation: From Hungary to Magyarorszag The Czech Nation: Between Czechoslovak and Czech Nationalism The Slovak Nation: From Czechoslovakia to Slovakia, Conclusion Bibliography

Partisans of Allah: Jihad in South Asia

Abstract: The idea of jihad is central to Islamic faith and ethics, and yet its meanings have been highly contested over time They have ranged from the philosophical struggle to live an ethical life to the political injunction to wage war against enemies of Islam Today, more than ever, jihad signifies the political opposition between Islam and the West As the line drawn between Muslims and non-Muslims becomes more rigid, Ayesha Jalal seeks to retrieve the ethical meanings of this core Islamic principle in South Asian historyDrawing on historical, legal, and literary sources, Jalal traces the intellectual itinerary of jihad through several centuries and across the territory connecting the Middle East with South Asia She reveals how key innovations in modern Islamic thought resulted from historical imperatives The social and political scene in India before, during, and after British colonial rule forms the main backdrop We experience the jihad as armed warfare waged by Sayyid Ahmad of Rai Bareilly between 1826 and 1831, the calls to jihad in the great rebellion of 1857, the fusion of jihad with a strand of anti-colonial nationalism in the early twentieth century, and the contemporary politics of self-styled jihadis in Pakistan, waging war to liberate co-religionists in Afghanistan and Kashmir"Partisans of Allah" surveys this rich and tumultuous history of South Asian Muslims and its critical contribution to the intellectual development of the key concept of jihad Analyzing the complex interplay of ethics and politics in Muslim history, the author effectively demonstrates the preeminent role of jihad in the Muslim faith today

Educate to hate: the use of education in the creation of antagonistic national identities in India and Pakistan

Abstract: In states that are diverse, issues of national identity formation and who belongs and how they belong can, and often do, change over time. This article analyses how education was used as a tool to artificially create antagonistic national identities based on religious and ethnic definitions of who was Indian or Pakistani. It focuses in particular on how in India the BJP led government (1998–2004) and in Pakistan the government under General Zia‐ul‐Haq (1977–1988) rewrote the curricula and changed textbook content in order to create the ‘other’ in order to suit their ideology and the politics of the day. Drawing on the original textbooks, extensive fieldwork interviews in both countries and a study of recent literature the paper argues that fundamentalization in general and the fundamentalization of textbooks in particular are state controlled mechanisms through which to control society. They can also have serious international consequences, as two antagonistic national identities oppose each other's defin...

Constructions of Australia in pro- and anti-asylum seeker political discourse

Abstract: Whilst there has been a proliferation of research on the role of nationalism in the exclusion of asylum seekers, less attention has been paid to how nationalism can be mobilised in accounts opposing, rather than supporting, harsh anti-asylum seeker regimes This paper compares the ways in which ‘Australia’ is constructed and used in parliamentary speeches on asylum seekers by both refugee advocates and those seeking harsher asylum seeker laws in Australia This dual focus is particularly important as it highlights the flexibility of nationalist discourse, in that the same constructions of the nation may be used for both exclusive and inclusive purposes Whilst typologies of inclusive and exclusive nationalisms, such as Smith's (1991) ethnic/civic typology, focus on the content of nationalist ideologies, we argue that the inclusivity or exclusivity of nationalism can best be determined by examining the subject positions, political solutions and social realities they make possible, and who these discourses benefit and oppress

New histories of the United Nations

Abstract: The United Nations has become the object of new and exciting historical research because of historians' renewed interest in themes that have preoccupied the UN from the outset, including questions of race and racism, the global implications of anticolonial nationalism, the problem of development in relations between North and South, and the gendered nature of the postwar international order. In this article we survey the state of histories of the UN and reflect on some of the ways in which the history of the UN has a place in international as well as world history as a site of cultural contestation, influence, continuity, and change.

A History of Modern Africa: 1800 to the Present

Abstract: Part I: Polity, Society and Economy in the Nineteenth Century:. 1. Changing Patterns of International Trade (1): Slave Trade and Legitimate Commerce in Atlantic Africa. 2. Changing Patterns of International Trade (2): the Slave and Ivory Trades of Eastern and Northeastern Africa. 3. Revolution, Colony and Frontier in Southern Africa. Part II: Africa and Islam in the Nineteenth Century:. 4. New Challenges in North Africa. 5. Islamic Revolution in West Africa. 6. The Spread of Islam in Eastern Africa. Part III: Africa and Europe in the Nineteenth Century:. 7. The Missionary Frontier. 8. Africa Explored. 9. Conquest and Partition: Prelude, Motive and Practice. Part IV: Consolidating Colonialisms:. 10. Colonial Rule: Aims and Impact. 11. Resistance and Adaptation. 12. Partition Complete: Africa in Global War (1). Part V: Colonial Apex:. 13: 'Pax colonia'? Economy and Society in the 1920s. 14. Depression, Protest and Identity. 15. The Edifice under Strain: Africa in Global War (2). Part VI: The Dissolution of Empire:. 16. Colonial Strategies: the Post-war World. 17. Nationalism and Identity. 18. Conflicts and Compromises: Processes of Decolonisation. Part VII: Legacy and Unfinished Business:. 19. Africa and the Cold War. 20. Quests for Stability: the Challenges of Independence. 21. Governance and Development: the Contemporary Age. Index

Tormented by History: Nationalism in Greece and Turkey

Abstract: 1 Introduction2 Modernity, Enlightenment, Westernization3 Culture, Identity, Difference4 Past, Memory, History5 Space, Territory, Homeland6 Minorities and the Politics of Homogenization7 Conclusion

A History of Universalism: Conceptions of the Internationality of Science from the Enlightenment to the Cold War

Abstract: That science is fundamentally universal has been proclaimed innumerable times. But the precise geographical meaning of this universality has changed historically. This article examines conceptions of scientific internationalism from the Enlightenment to the Cold War, and their varying relations to cosmopolitanism, nationalism, socialism, and ‘the West’. These views are confronted with recent tendencies to cast science as a uniquely European product.

Nationalizing Iran: Culture, Power, and the State, 1870-1940

Abstract: Acknowledgments 1 Staging the Nation: City, Ceremony, and Legitimation in Late Qajar Iran 2 Nationalizing Pre-Islamic Iran: The Return of the Archaic and the Authentication of Modernity 3 The Pedagogic State: Education and Nationalism under Reza Shah 4 Nation and Memory: Commemorations and the Construction of National Memory under Reza Shah Conclusion NotesBibliographyIndex

'Echoing Silences' : ethnicity in post-colonial Zimbabwe, 1980-2007

Abstract: In spite of its rare entry into both official and public discourses about contemporary Zimbabwe, ethnicity, alongside race, has continued to shape and influence the economic, social, and political life of Zimbabwe since the achievement of independence in 1980. In this article we argue that whilst post-independence Zimbabwe has since the days of the Gukurahundi war (1982-1986) not experienced serious ethnic-based wars or political instability, there is serious ethnic polarisation in the country and ethnicity remains one of the challenges to the survival of both the state and the country. This ethnic polarisation is to be explained mainly in terms of the broader failure by the state to develop an effective response to the political economy of ethnicity inherited from the colonial past. As with most postcolonial African nationalist governments which have come to be haunted by ethnicity, such as Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo and most recently Kenya and South Africa, the postcolonial government of Zimbabwe has largely remained reluctant to engage ethnicity as an issue in both politics and the economy, particularly with regard to addressing historical and contemporary factors that continued to make ethnicity an important issue in people's lives. The nationalist government's state-building project, especially its coercive mobilisation and nation-building projects of the early 1980s, paid little attention to the ethnic configuration of the inherited state, as well as the structures and institutions which enacted and reproduced ethnicity. Such neglected processes, structures and institutions included unequal development of the provinces and the marginalisation of particular ethnic groups in politics, economy and society. African Journal on Conflict Resolution Vol. 7 (2) 2007: pp. 275-297

Architecture and nation building in the age of globalization: construction of the national stadium of beijing for the 2008 olympics

Abstract: :This study examines the relationship between architecture and nation building in the age of globalization, with an analysis of the debates and controversies about the National Stadium, the main sports venue for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing. The article argues that nationalism, along with the cultural ideology of global consumerism, drives the production of flagship architectural projects in China. The dilemma between nationalism and global consumerism has led state politicians and bureaucrats to opt for a global architectural language to narrate national ambitions. The study reveals the rationale underlying the search for global architecture among political elites in China, as well as its mixed consequences for local cultural discourses and politics.

Postsocialism and Cultural Politics: China in the Last Decade of the Twentieth Century

Abstract: Acknowledgments ix Introduction: The Cultural Politics of Socialism 1 Part I. Intellectual Discourse: National and Global Determinations 1. The Return of the Political: The Making of the Post-Tiananmen Intellectual Field 25 2. Nationalism, Mass Culture, and Intellectual Strategies in the 1990s 102 3. Postmodernism and Postsocialist Society: Cultural Politics after the "New Era" 136 Part II. Literary Discourse: Narrative Possibilities of Postsocialism 4. Shanghai Nostalgia: Mourning and Allegory in Wang Anyi's Literary Production in the 1990s 181 5. Toward a Critical Iconography: Shanghai, "Minor Literature," and the Unmaking of a Modern Chinese Mythology 212 6. "Demonic Realism" and the "Socialist Market Economy": Language Game, Natural History, and Social Allegory in Mo Yan's The Republic of Wine 240 Part III. Cinematic Discourse: Universality, Singularity, and the Everyday World 7. National Trauma, Global Allegory: Construction of Collective Memory in Tian Zhuangzhuang's The Blue Kite 269 8. Narrative, Culture, and Legitimacy: Repetition and Singularity in Zhang Yimou's The Story of Qiu Ju 289 Notes 311 Bibliography 331 Index 341