Showing papers on "Natural language published in 1975"

The Ontogenesis of Speech Acts.

Abstract: A speech act approach to the transition from pre-linguistic to linguistic communication is adopted in order to consider language in relation to behaviour generally and to allow for an emphasis on the USE of language rather than on its form. The structure of language is seen as non-arbitrary in that it reflects both attention structures (via predication) and action structures (via the fundamental case grammatical form of language). Linguistic concepts are first realized in action. A pilot study focusing on the regulation of JOINT attention and JOINT activity within the context of mutuality between mother and infant is discussed, with emphasis on ritualization in mutual play as a vehicle for understanding the development of the formal structures of language.

An intelligent analyzer and understander of English

Abstract: The paper describes a working analysis and generation program for natural language, which handles paragraph length input. Its core is a system of preferential choice between deep semantic patterns, based on what we call “semantic density.” The system is contrasted: with syntax oriented linguistic approaches, andwith theorem proving approaches to the understanding problem.

Pragmatics of natural languages

Abstract: Further Remarks on the Pragmatics of Natural Languages.- Remarks on Logic as Universal Semantics.- Some Remarks on Grice's Views about the Logical Particles of Natural Language.- Formal Message Theory.- A Step toward a Theory of Linguistic Performance.- On Subdividing Semiotic.- Some Thoughts on the Formal Approach to the Philosophy of Language.- The New Rhetoric.- On Linguistic Competence.- Language Communication with Children-Toward a Theory of Language Use.- Some Aspects of Language Acquisition.

The Essential Contributions of Formal Instruction in Adult Second Language Learning

Abstract: One way of investigating what happens to the language learning capacity at puberty is to examine what the essential contributions of formal instruction are: since formal instruction is so useful for the adult and non-essential for the child language learner, it is probably the case that the main contributions formal instruction makes are in just those areas where the "LAD" is affected at puberty. A feature-type comparison of language teaching methods known to be successful in helping adults learn language reveals that the universal and presumably crucial ingredients of formal instruction are (1) the isolation of rules and lexical items of the target language, and (2) the possibility of error detection or correction. This hypothesis predicts that any new system that produces significant increases in second language proficiency for adults will contain these two features. It also predicts that adults who seem to be able to learn second languages in informal linguistic environments have some means of approaching rules and lexical items one at a time and are getting feedback. The analysis also points out direction for determining which values of non-universal features might be most useful for adult language learning instruction.

The Viterbi algorithm as an aid in text recognition (Corresp.)

Abstract: The results of an experiment are described in which contextual information is used to improve the performance of an optical character reader when reading English text. Specifically, English is modeled as a Markov source and the Viterbi algorithm is used to do maximum a posteriori sequence estimation on the output of an optical character reader (OCR).

On representing ‘true-in-l’ in L

Abstract: Given Tarski’s familiar treatment of the semantic paradoxes, no formal language can adequately represent its own truth-concept.1 But natural languages do, apparently, express their own truth-concepts and this fact alone has been enough to motivate some to seek alternative treatments of the paradoxes. In this paper we demonstrate that a language construed according to the ‘category’ approach,2 modified in certain respects, can indeed express its own truth-concept.

Belief systems and language understanding

Abstract: : The paper discusses some of the 'belief systems knowledge' used in language understanding. It begins with a presentation of a theory of personal causation. The theory supplies the tools to account for purposeful behavior. Using primitives of the theory the social aspect of an action can be described. The social aspect is that which depends on beliefs and intentions. Patterns of behavior, called 'social action paradigms' (SAP's), are then defined in terms of social actions. The SAP's provide a structure for episodes analogous to the structure a grammar provides for sentences.

Some transformational extensions of montague grammar

Abstract: Richard Montague’s work on English, as represented in Montague (1970a), (1970b), (1972), represents the first systematic attempt to apply the logician’s methods of formal syntax and semantics to natural language. With few exceptions,1 linguists and logicians had previously been agreed, although for different reasons, that the apparatus developed by logicians for treating the syntax and semantics of artificially constructed formal languages, while obviously fruitful within its restricted domain, was not in any direct way applicable to the analysis of natural languages. Logicians seem to have felt that natural languages were too unsystematic, too full of vagueness and ambiguity, to be amenable to their rigorous methods, or if susceptible to formal treatment, only at great cost.2 Linguists, on the other hand, emphasize their own concern for psychological reality, and the logicians’ lack of it, in eschewing the logicians’ approach: linguists, at least those of the Chomskyan school, are searching for a characterization of the class of possible human languages, hoping to gain thereby some insight into the structure of the mind, and the formal languages constructed by logicians appear to depart radically from the structures common to actual natural languages.

The restriction language for computer grammars of natural language

Abstract: Over the past few years, a number of systems for the computer analysis of natural language sentences have been based on augmented context-free grammars: a context-free grammar which defines a set of parse trees for a sentence, plus a group of restrictions to which a tree must conform in order to be a valid sentence analysis. As the coverage of the grammar is increased, an efficient representation becomes essential for further development. This paper presents a programming language designed specifically for the compact and perspicuous statement of restrictions of a natural language grammar. It is based on ten years' experience parsing text sentences with the comprehensive English grammar of the N.Y.U. Linguistic String Project, and embodies in its syntax and routines the relations which were found to be useful and adequate for computerized natural language analysis. The language is used in the current implementation of the Linguistic String Parser.

Linguistic theory and the real world1

Abstract: Traditionally, applied linguists have looked to theoretical linguistics for help, and not vice versa, and they haven't found much enlightenment. Recent work by theoretical linguists on the interaction between language use and real world phenomena may begin to change this situation. Language teachers have realized that some aspects of language are harder to teach than others: the use of particles like “well,” hedges like “sort of,” and “I guess,” sex link uses of various sorts, and forms marking levels of politeness. Although analogues are found between languages, exact parallelism between a form and its function in two languages seldom exists. Theoretical linguistics is becoming able to formalize the properties of this area of language use. Its discoveries could aid teachers in explaining the uses of these forms. Conversely, there is much not yet understood by theory. For one thing, we don't know which of the properties of these forms are universal. Applied linguists know where second-language learners make mistakes and what kind of errors they make. The nature of these errors should prove a diagnostic aid to theorists, showing what is common to all languages and what is not. Thus, in this area as in many others, progress can best be made by theoretical and applied linguists if they will work together as equal partners.

Conceptual dependency theory

Abstract: The problem of how one knows what is a correct conceptual dependency diagram for a given sentence is not entirely straightforward. The chapter explains by means of examples and discussion to demonstrate how one can know what the best representation for a sentence is. The representation problem depends to a large extent on the intent of the representor. If it is desired, as it is in conceptual dependency theory as practiced by the authors, to account for the meaning, focus, and intent of sentences that are heard in the way that they were intended by the speaker, then what follows should reveal the procedures for doing that. The first basic principle in conceptual dependency is that an act is something that is done by an actor to an object. Once natural language sentences can be reduced to the conceptualizations underlying them with the use of primitive actions, the inference process is simplified. The problem of inference is by no means solved by the use of these primitives.

Natural language access to a large data base: an engineering approach

Abstract: An intelligent program which accepts natural language queries can allow anon-technical user to easily obtain information from a large non-uniform data base. This paper discusses the design of a program which will tolerate a wide variety of requests including ones with pronouns and referential phrases. The system embodies a certain amount of common sense, so that for example, it "knows when it does or does not understand a particular request and it can bypass actual data base search in answering unreasonable requests. The system is conceptually simple and could be easily adapted to other data bases.

Programming languages, natural languages, and mathematics

Abstract: Some social aspects of pro gramming are illuminated through analogies with similar aspects of mathematics and natural languages. The split between pure and applied mathematics is found similarly in programming. The development of natural languages toward flexionless, word-order based language types speaks for programming language design based on general, abstract constructs. By analogy with incidents of the history of artificial, auxiliary languages it is suggested that Fortran and Cobol will remain dominant for a long time to come. The most promising avenues for further work of wide influence are seen to be high quality program literature (i.e. programs) of general utility and studies of questions related to program style.

Toward a state based conceptual representation

Abstract: This paper discusses representations of scientfic information derived from these of Schank (1972, 1971), Milks (1973a, 1973b, 1973c), and Schank et al. (1973). A critical review to their related approaches is given that shoes representational inadequacies for language cosprehension in their theories. rore ger. srally, various pioblas in representing knowledge are investigated and methods suggested for handling soae of thee. These problems concern the representation of states, events, actions, and cases, as veil as the handling of logical and natural language quantifiers, adverbials, fuzziness, and the meanings of cohplex concepts.

Interactive consulting via natural language

Abstract: Interactive programming systems often contain help commands to give the programmer on-line instruction regarding the use of the various systems commands. It is argued that it would be relatively easy to make these help commands significantly more helpful by having them accept requests in natural language. As a demonstration, Weizenbaum's ELIZA program has been provided with a script that turns it into a natural language system consultant.

Formal semantics of Natural Language: Pragmatics in natural logic

Abstract: \U l' Pragmatics in natural logic sconce LAKOFF I would like to discuss two aspects of pragmatics that in recent years have been treated very differently: indexicals and conversational implicatures Montague and Scott proposed to handle indexicals by adding to points of reference (sometimes called ‘indices') extra coordinates for speaker, hearer, time and place of utterance This proposal places indexicals among those phenomena to be dealt with by formal logic, and such systems have in recent years been articulated by Lewis and Kamp, among others Implica- tures on the other hand, were taken by Grice to be by nature informal inferences of a fundamentally different kind than logical inferences, and hence not to be dealt with by the apparatus of formal logic In other papers I have dropped hints to the efl°ect that indexicals and implicatures should be treated somewhat differently than they are in the Montague-Scott and Grice proposals I would like to elaborate a bit on those hints The basic suggestion is this: (I) If the goals of what I have called natural logic are adopted, then it should in time be possible to handle indexicals without any extra coordinates for speaker, hcarer, and time and place of utterance, and it should also be possible to handle implicatures without any kinds of cxtralogical inference The basic ingredients of the suggestion are as follows: (A) The so-called performative analysis for imperatives, questions, statements, promises, etc (B) The limitation of points of reference to assignment coordinates for variables and atomic predicates (C) The commitment of natural logic to the formal semantic charac- terization of all natural language concepts, including those having 1 Copyright © by George Lakofi, 1973 All rights reserved by the author This work was partially supported by grants GS 35119 and GS 38476 from the National Science Foundation to the University of California An earlier version of this paper was presented at the University of Texas Conference on Performntives, Implications, and Presupposi- tions 353