Showing papers on "Prejudice published in 2006"

A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health

Abstract: This paper reviews 138 empirical quantitative population-based studies of self-reported racism and health. These studies show an association between self-reported racism and ill health for oppressed racial groups after adjustment for a range of confounders. The strongest and most consistent findings are for negative mental health outcomes and health-related behaviours, with weaker associations existing for positive mental health outcomes, self-assessed health status, and physical health outcomes. Most studies in this emerging field have been published in the past 5 years and have been limited by a dearth of cohort studies, a lack of psychometrically validated exposure instruments, poor conceptualization and definition of racism, conflation of racism with stress, and debate about the aetiologically relevant period for self-reported racism. Future research should examine the psychometric validity of racism instruments and include these instruments, along with objectively measured health outcomes, in existing large-scale survey vehicles as well as longitudinal studies and studies involving children. There is also a need to gain a better understanding of the perception, attribution, and reporting of racism, to investigate the pathways via which self-reported racism affects health, the interplay between mental and physical health outcomes, and exposure to intra-racial, internalized, and systemic racism. Ensuring the quality of studies in this field will allow future research to reveal the complex role that racism plays as a determinant of population health.

Shunned: Discrimination against People with Mental Illness

Abstract: Foreword by Judi Chamberlin 1. Close to home: family, housing and neighbours 2. Getting personal: friendships, intimate relationships and childcare 3. It's not working: discrimination and employment 4. By a process of exclusion: discrimination in civil and social life 5. Harmful helpers: discrimination in health and social care 6. Profiting from prejudice: mental illness in the media 7. Danger or disinformation: the facts about violence and mental illness 8. 'Why try?' Self-stigmatisation, avoidance and withdrawal 9. From stigma to ignorance, prejudice and discrimination 10. What works to reduce discrimination? Challenges for service users 11. What works to reduce discrimination? Challenges for everyone

New approaches to understanding racial prejudice and discrimination

Abstract: This chapter reviews and critiques recent work on prejudice, discrimination, and racism, with an emphasis on evidence of continuing discrimination in the United States and efforts to understand its basis in prejudice. Three lines of research are the primary subject of the review: recent work on the measurement of discrimination, especially audit methods; theories of new prejudice and new racism following the Civil Rights movement; and research on implicit prejudicial attitudes. The most sophisticated new work on prejudice and discrimination is characterized by a multidimensional understanding of prejudice and/or the use of experimental methods. This review argues that research on implicit prejudice, largely developed by psychologists, provides an important new understanding of the basis of discrimination and should be incorporated in sociological accounts.

Differential Effects of Right Wing Authoritarianism and Social Dominance Orientation on Outgroup Attitudes and Their Mediation by Threat From and Competitiveness to Outgroups

Abstract: A dual-process model of individual differences in prejudice proneness proposes that Right Wing Authoritarianism (RWA) and Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) will influence prejudice against particular outgroups through different motivational mechanisms. RWA should cause negative attitudes toward groups seen as threatening social control, order, cohesion, and stability, such as deviant groups, and negativity toward these groups should be mediated through perceived threat from them. SDO should cause negative attitudes toward groups that activate competitiveness over relative dominance and superiority, such as socially subordinate groups low in power and status, and negativity toward these groups should be mediated through competitiveness toward them. Findings from four student samples that assessed attitudes toward seven social groups selected as likely to vary systematically in social threat and social subordination supported these predictions. The findings have implications for reconciling intergroup and individual difference explanations of prejudice and for interventions to reduce prejudice.

A developmental intergroup theory of social stereotypes and prejudice.

Abstract: Developmental intergroup theory specifies the mechanisms and rules that govern the processes by which children single out groups as targets of stereotyping and prejudice, and by which children learn and construct both the characteristics (i.e., stereotypes) and affective responses (i.e., prejudices) that are associated with these groups in their culture. Specifically, we argue that children have a drive to understand their world, and that this drive is manifested in their tendency to classify natural and non-natural stimuli into categories, and to search the environment for cues about which of the great number of potential bases for categorization are important. The first step in the process of stereotype and prejudice formation is, therefore, the establishment of the psychological salience of some particular set of dimensions. Four factors are hypothesized to affect the establishment of the psychological salience of person attributes: (1) perceptual discriminability of social groups, (2) proportional group size, (3) explicit labeling and use of social groups, and (4) implicit use of social groups. We argue that person characteristics that are perceptually discriminable are more likely than other characteristics to become the basis of stereotyping, but that perceptual discriminability alone is insufficient to trigger psychological salience. Thus, for example, young children's ability to detect race or gender does not mean that these distinctions will inevitably become the bases of stereotypes and prejudice. Instead, for perceptually salient groups to become psychologically salient, one or more additional circumstances must hold, including being characterized by minority status, by adults' use of different labels for different groups, by adults using group divisions functionally, or by segregation. After a particular characteristic that may be used to differentiate among individuals becomes salient, we propose that children who have the ability to sort consistently will then categorize newly encountered individuals along this dimension. The act of categorization then triggers the process of social stereotyping and prejudice formation. Four factors are hypothesized to have an impact on the processes of forming stereotypes and prejudice. These include: (1) essentialism, (2) ingroup bias, (3) explicit attributions to social groups, and (4) group-attribute covariation. As noted throughout this chapter, there has been relatively little developmental work on many of the processes outlined here. Although findings from our own programs of research are consistent with the role of factors we have identified in the theory (e.g., the role of minority status, segregation, labeling and functional use of groups have all been shown to influence children's evaluations and beliefs about social groups), far more extensive research is needed. In addition to testing the reliability and generalizability of past findings to other samples, other research laboratories, and other experimentally manipulated groups, future work must move these theoretical models into the laboratory of the real world. If the tenets of developmental intergroup theory are correct, there would be many implications for social, educational, and legal policies related to social groups. We noted, for example, ways in which race and gender are made psychologically salient (e.g., the use of labels; segregated conditions). Importantly, factors such as these are largely under societal control. That is, institutions and individuals can choose to routinely label and use some particular category within children's environments or not. It is a violation of federal law, for example, for public school teachers to ask the children in their classrooms to line up at the door by race. In contrast, no federal or state law prohibits teachers from organizing their classrooms by sex. Should such laws be enacted? There can also be social controls on various forms of social segregation. Is it within individual children's rights to affiliate only with same-sex or same-race individuals? Is it acceptable for children and adolescents to exclude peers from their games, play, study groups, or other cliques on the basis of gender, race, age, or ethnicity? Finally, social institutions such as schools offer potential opportunities for intervention programs. What, if any, programs should be offered or required? Should curricula explicitly discuss social stereotyping and prejudice? Should children be taught negative information about people with whom they share some characteristic to reduce ingroup favoritism? Our hope is that developmental intergroup theory will ultimately prove valuable not only for understanding the development of social stereotypes and prejudices in children, but also for guiding social interventions that can ultimately prevent the development of stereotypes and prejudices in individuals and society.

The Ties That Bind and Those That Don't: Toward Reconciling Group Threat and Contact Theories of Prejudice

Abstract: Does interracial/interethnic propinquity breed hostility or harmony? Group threat and contact theories generally answer hostility and harmony, respectively. I propose that a historically and culturally rooted racial/ethnic hierarchy differentially shapes whites' present- day threat of, contact with, and ultimately, prejudice towards blacks, Hispanics and Asians. Because Hispanics and Asians have ascended in this hierarchy, they arouse less threat and have more comfortable interactions with whites. Results from multilevel models of 2000 General Social Survey and Census data indicate that the real presence of blacks - not Hispanics or Asians - living near whites heightens whites' prejudice. Moreover, whites who know Hispanics and Asians are less prejudiced towards them, but whites need to both know and feel close to blacks to experience reduced prejudice. Implications are discussed. If the problem of the 20 th

Effects of perceived racism, cultural mistrust and trust in providers on satisfaction with care.

Abstract: Discriminatory treatment of African Americans in healthcare is well recognized, yet the literature is unclear on the specific role that perceived racism and mistrust play in the patient-provider relationship The purpose of this study was to test a mid-range theoretical model entitled Perceptions of Racism and Mistrust in Health Care (PRMHC) This model hypothesized that perceived racism influences cultural mistrust, which affects trust in providers--and these combined psychosocial aspects of healthcare affect satisfaction with the care received One-hundred-forty-five African-American subjects participated in structured interviews to collect demographic and psychosocial data Provider data was obtained through chart audits In a group of low-income African Americans in two primary care clinics, perceptions of racism and mistrust of whites had a significant negative effect on trust and satisfaction Perceived racism had both a significant, inverse direct effect on satisfaction as well as a significant indirect effect on satisfaction mediated by cultural mistrust and trust in provider Structural equation modeling analysis supported the hypothesized theoretical relationships and explained 27% of the variance in satisfaction with care The findings add to the existing literature by enhancing our understanding of the complex perspectives on trust and overall satisfaction with care among African-American patients Results suggest that improving health outcomes for African Americans requires a broader understanding of cultural competence, one that addresses societal racism and its impact on provider-patient relationships

Gender-based violence: concepts, methods, and findings

Abstract: The United Nations has identified gender-based violence against women as a global health and development issue, and a host of policies, public education, and action programs aimed at reducing gender-based violence have been undertaken around the world. This article highlights new conceptualizations, methodological issues, and selected research findings that can inform such activities. In addition to describing recent research findings that document relationships between gender, power, sexuality, and intimate violence cross-nationally, it identifies cultural factors, including linkages between sex and violence through media images that may increase women's risk for violence, and profiles a host of negative physical, mental, and behavioral health outcomes associated with victimization including unwanted pregnancy and abortion. More research is needed to identify the causes, dynamics, and outcomes of gender-based violence, including media effects, and to articulate how different forms of such violence vary in outcomes depending on cultural context.

Of pride and prejudice: the role of sociology and social networks in integrating the health sciences.

Abstract: Calls have been issued for understanding the "contexts" or "environment" shaping the causes and consequences of health and health care. Existing efforts raise concerns about how a panorama of influences can be considered simultaneously. Sociology's view of contexts as social network structures that shape and are shaped in social interaction offers one key to resolving this dilemma. Because social networks have become central in the social, natural, and physical sciences, this perspective provides a common platform for bringing in sociology's rich theoretical and methodological insights. Yet, to do this well, three conditions must shape our response. First, all levels relevant to health and health care must be considered, separated out, and linked by network mechanisms. The genetic-biological level, perhaps the most foreign level to sociologists, represents the greatest need and best prospect for advancing a sociologically based solution. Second, room must be made to tailor models to populations, whether defined socially or medically. Third, sociologists must find a voice within "big science " to address problems from social construction to social causation that contribute to basic social processes as well as health. I trace developments in the Network-Episode Model as one theoretical starting point.

Sexual orientation and mental health : examining identity and development in lesbian, gay, and bisexual people

Abstract: In ""Sexual Orientation and Mental Health"", expert contributors explore the impressive body of rigorous empirical research on mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual people that has emerged over the past decade. This volume presents some of the most important work in this field from both established and emerging investigators. The contributors examine the prevalence and potential determinants of depression, anxiety, and substance abuse in adolescents and adults, giving consideration to the roles of prejudice and harassment as well as of positive family and social supports. The chapters address a wide range of topics, including sexual behavior and identity, the influence of religion on mental health, work satisfaction, the well-being of children of same-sex couples, and the links between psychosocial processes and physical health. Several chapters also focus on the experiences of members of ethnic minority groups. Contributors discuss methodological challenges in conducting research with lesbian, gay, and bisexual people and suggest topics for future research. In addition to contributing to scientific knowledge in numerous areas, findings reported in this volume can inform the development of prevention and treatment interventions, service delivery systems, and health policies that are sensitive to the needs of lesbian, gay, and bisexual people.

Asian Americans and Racism: When Bad Things Happen to "Model Minorities"

Abstract: Due to the limited psychological research on Asian Americans' experiences with racism, in the current study the authors examined the relationships between racial socialization, racial identity, and perceptions of racism, with a college-aged sample (N = 254) consisting primarily of Chinese Americans and Filipino Americans. With the use of multiple regression analyses, the results indicated that racial socialization, particularly discussions about race and racism, was positively related to one's perceptions of racism. Moreover, the study also showed that the relationship between racial socialization and perceptions of racism was partially mediated by racial identity schemas. To understand how Asian Americans regard racism, it is useful to have an understanding of racial identity theory and the manner in which Asian Americans are socialized to perceive racism.

Prejudice Expectations Moderate Preconscious Attention to Cues That Are Threatening to Social Identity

Abstract: Two studies examined whether chronic and situational expectations about being stigmatized predict attention toward cues that are threatening to social identity. In Study 1, women's chronic expectations about experiencing sexism were positively associated with their attention toward subliminal cues threatening to their social identity. In Study 2, women were vigilant toward subliminal cues threatening to their social identity when the experimental situation conveyed that their gender was devalued, but not when the experimental situation promoted value and respect for their gender. Women were vigilant toward consciously presented cues threatening to their social identity regardless of the attitudes the experimental context conveyed toward their group. These studies have important theoretical and practical implications for understanding the psychological experience of possessing a devalued social identity.

Negras in Brazil: Re-envisioning Black Women, Citizenship, and the Politics of Identity

Abstract: For most of the twentieth century, Brazil was widely regarded as a "racial democracy" - a country untainted by the scourge of racism and prejudice. In recent decades, however, this image has been severely critiqued, with a growing number of studies highlighting persistent and deep-seated patterns of racial discrimination and inequality. Yet, recent work on race and racism has rarely considered gender as part of its analysis. In "Negras in Brazil", Kia Lilly Caldwell examines the life experiences of Afro-Brazilian women whose stories have until now been largely untold. This pathbreaking study analyzes the links between race and gender and broader processes of social, economic, and political exclusion. Drawing on ethnographic research with social movement organizations and thirty-five life history interviews, Caldwell explores the everyday struggles Afro-Brazilian women face in their efforts to achieve equal rights and full citizenship. She also shows how the black women's movement, which has emerged in recent decades, has sought to challenge racial and gender discrimination in Brazil. While proposing a broader view of citizenship that includes domains such as popular culture and the body, "Negras in Brazil" highlights the continuing relevance of identity politics for members of racially marginalized communities. Providing new insights into black women's social activism and a gendered perspective on Brazilian racial dynamics, this book will be of interest to students and scholars of Latin American Studies, African diaspora studies, women's studies, politics, and cultural anthropology.

‘They're not racist …’ Prejudice denial, mitigation and suppression in dialogue

Abstract: Social scientific work on the suppression, mitigation or denial of prejudiced attitudes has tended to focus on the strategic self-presentation and self-monitoring undertaken by individual social actors on their own behalf. In this paper, we argue that existing perspectives might usefully be extended to incorporate three additional considerations. First, that social actors may, on some occasions, act to defend not only themselves, but also others from charges of prejudice. Second, that over the course of any social encounter, interactants may take joint responsibility for policing conversation and for correcting and suppressing the articulation of prejudiced talk. Third, that a focus on the dialogic character of conversation affords an appreciation of the ways in which the status of any particular utterance, action or event as 'racist' or 'prejudiced' may constitute a social accomplishment. Finally, we note the logical corollary of these observations - that in everyday life, the occurrence of 'racist discourse' is likely to represent a collaborative accomplishment, the responsibility for which is shared jointly between the person of the speaker and those other co-present individuals who occasion, reinforce or simply fail to suppress it.

RACIAL APATHY AND HURRICANE KATRINA: The Social Anatomy of Prejudice in the Post-Civil Rights Era

Abstract: During the crisis that followed Hurricane Katrina, many Americans expressed surprise at the dramatic levels of racial inequality captured in the images of large numbers of poor Black people left behind in devastated New Orleans. In this article we argue that, to better understand both the parameters of contemporary racial inequality reflected in the hurricane’s aftermath and why so many were surprised about the social realities of racial inequality that social scientists have known about for decades, it is essential to recognize the shifting nature of Whites’ racial attitudes and understandings. There is widespread evidence that in the post-civil rights era the expression of White racial prejudice has changed. In fact, during the post-civil rights era subtle and indirect forms of prejudice have become more central to the sustenance and perpetuation of racial inequality than are overt forms of prejudice. We draw on both survey and qualitative data to investigate current manifestations of White racial attitudes and prejudices. Our results indicate that racial apathy, indifference towards racial and ethnic inequality, is a relatively new but expanding form of racial prejudice. We further show that Whites’ systematic “not knowing” about racial inequality (White ignorance), which was manifest in the reaction to the crises after Hurricane Katrina, is related to this racial indifference. Racial apathy and White ignorance (i.e., not caring and not knowing) are extensions of hegemonic color-blind discourses (i.e., not seeing race). These phenomena serve as pillars of contemporary racial inequality that have until now received little attention. We conclude with a discussion of the theoretical and the practical implications of our results for understanding racial dynamics in the post-Katrina United States.

Plausible prejudice : everyday experiences and social images of nation, culture and race

Abstract: Introduction: the Social Production of Conventional Wisdom Individualisation: From Obedience to Negotiation in Families and Workplaces Everyday Practices and Social Imaginaries: Home, Local Community and Nation Boundaries of Belonging: Children's Everyday Lives and National Identification Mainstream and Alternative Models of Family Life Invisible Fences: reinventing Sameness and Difference A Public Dispute About a Racial Term Anthropologists Debating 'Culture' and 'Race' Tales of Decent and Consent: Young People Struggling for a Sustainable Self-image Imagined Kinship and the Rearticulation of Political Ethnonationalism The Dignity of the Scholar Decolonising Anthropological Knowledge Bibliography.

Transcending transculturalism? Race, ethnicity and health-care

Abstract: This paper offers a critical commentary on the essentialist concept of ethnicity, which, it is argued, underpins the discourse of transcultural health-care. Following a consideration of the difficulties that ensue from the way in which ethnicity has been theorised within transcultural nursing in particular, the paper turns to a consideration of alternative ways of thinking about ethnicity, which have emerged from more recent social anthropology and postmodernism. It addresses the question of how to therorise ethnicity in a way that does not entail its reification as a set of fixed cultural properties, and makes some tentative suggestions for the possibility of a critical culturalist approach to difference and healthcare practice, which must include a consideration of racisms.

Working-Class White: The Making and Unmaking of Race Relations

Abstract: List of Tables vii Preface and Acknowledgments ix Introduction 1 Chapter 1. The Cities and the Sites: "The Crescent" in Atlanta and "Greenfield" in Boston 19 Chapter 2. Experiences of White Racial Identity 38 Chapter 3. Situational Contexts and Perceptions of Prejudice 59 Chapter 4. The Implications of Diversity among Blacks for White Attitudes 79 Chapter 5. Race, Crime, and Violence 104 Chapter 6. Race, Gender, and Sexuality 130 Conclusion 148 Appendix 1. Cashiers, Neighbors, and Regular Customers 157 Appendix 2. Notes on Methodology 159 Notes 163 References 167 Index 187

Public prejudice as collaborative accomplishment : towards a dialogic social psychology of racism.

Abstract: Existing social psychological perspectives tend to overlook the fact that public expressions of racial, ethnic or national prejudice normally constitute collaborative accomplishments, the product of joint action between a number of individuals. Awareness of the inherently dialogical character of prejudiced talk affords appreciation of the ways in which expressions of ethnic or racial antipathy need not simply be used to display a speaker's private attitudes or to defend a group position, but may also be oriented to the local context of talk in action. Recognizably prejudiced talk may be used to claim the floor, to bully, to amuse, to shock, to display intimacy and solidarity, to mark a variety of personal and social identities or to key the informal, backstage, character of a social encounter. The fact that prejudiced talk can be intricately woven through the delicate choreography of everyday sociability may greatly complicate any attempts to challenge it. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Race and mental health: there is more to race than racism

Abstract: Some minority ethnic groups in England and Wales have higher rates of admission for mental illness and more adverse pathways to care. Are the resulting accusations of institutional racism within psychiatry justified?

The Impact of Cognitive Styles on Authoritarianism Based Conservatism and Racism

Abstract: In this study, we investigated in a Flemish undergraduate sample (N = 418) the impact of cognitive style, right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) and social dominance orientation (SDO) on conservative beliefs and racism. A model in which the effect of cognitive style on conservatism and prejudice is mediated by RWA and SDO showed superior fit to a model in which the effect of RWA and SDO on the target variables is mediated by cognitive style. Further, despite the inclusion of a variety of cognitive-style measures, only desire for order and predictability is related substantially and equally strong to submissive-based and dominance-based authoritarianism, which mediated the effects on conservatism and racism. These results suggest that the "motivated cognition" account of conservative ideology certainly applies to the Need for Order facet scale of the Need for Closure Scale (Webster & Kruglanski, 1994) but that cognitive-style variables in general are less predictive of right-wing ideology.

Representing the ‘other’: a discursive analysis of prejudice and moral exclusion in talk about Romanies

Abstract: This article investigates the particulars of prejudiced and moral exclusion discourse about ethnic minorities in a Romanian socio-cultural context. It examines in detail the discourse of middle-class Romanian professionals taking up different ideological positions on the issue of the fairness of extremist politics towards ethnic minorities. A comparison is made between participants ‘supporting’ extremist politics and those ‘opposing’ this kind of politics to see whether there are differences in the way participants from both categories talk about the Romanies. It is suggested that a very similar expression of moral exclusion discourse is to be found across both positions, a very similar use of various discursive and rhetorical strategies to blame the Romanies and ‘naturalize’ their characteristics, position them beyond the moral order, nationhood and difference. The analysis, inspired by a critical discursive approach will focus on the construction of ideological representations of Romanies. In examining prejudiced and moral exclusion discourse against Romanies, this article constitutes an attempt to understand the situated dynamics of prejudice and some of the ways in which particular ways of talking delegitimize and, sometimes, dehumanize the ‘other’. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Sportophobia: Why Do Some Men Avoid Sport?

Abstract: Studying what triggers homophobic expressions such as “poofter” and “faggot” reveals that homophobia has significance far beyond it being a simple prejudice against homosexuality—homophobia is deeply implicated in the gender order and its influence on contemporary masculinities and male identity is comprehensive. Although clearly related to misogyny, antigay bias, and heterosexism, homophobia means much more. For young Australian males, homophobia is used to police the boundary between “ successful manhood” and those who, according to their peers, fail to “measure up.” From this perspective, the complex and problematic relationship between homophobia and men's sport becomes much clearer. A key factor that emerges is the pivotal importance of the discrediting power of homophobia, making it respected and feared (homophobiaphobia). The data reveal this to be a key mechanism though which homophobia exerts its extraordinary purchase on all men, gay and straight.

Media, Racism and Public Health Psychology

Abstract: International literature has established that racism contributes to ill-health of migrants, ethnic minorities and indigenous peoples. Racism generally negates wellbeing, adversely affecting physical and psychological health. Numerous studies have shown that media contribute marginalizing particular ethnic and cultural groups depicting them primarily as problems for and threats to the dominant. This articles frames media representations of, and their effect on, the indigenous Maori of Aotearoa, New Zealand within the ongoing processes of colonization. We argue that reflects the media contribution to maintenance and naturalisation of colonial relationships and seek to include critical media scholarship in a critical public health psychology.

Minority group members' theories of intergroup contact: a case study of British Muslims' conceptualizations of 'Islamophobia' and social change.

Abstract: Much research in intergroup relations concerns the potential for interventions (e.g. intergroup contact) to reduce majorities' discrimination against minorities. In this paper we focus on how minority group members construe such interventions, especially as they affect their abilities to act in terms of their collective identity to realize social change. In addressing this issue, we focus on a minority's beliefs and theories concerning the intergroup dynamics lying behind their marginalization. Our data are qualitative and concern British Muslims' analyses of the dynamics of Islamophobia. Specifically, we explore two theorizations of Muslims' marginalization. Both share a concern with improving Muslims' collective position in Britain. However, they construe the dynamics to Islamophobia in very different ways, and this shapes their approach to intergroup contact and dialogue. Our analysis is informed by, and seeks to complement, social psychological theorizing on social change and intergroup contact.

Preservice Teachers' Beliefs and Practices: Religion and Religious Diversity

Abstract: Discussions about religious aspects of diversity are often absent from research. Similarly, topics such as religious forms of prejudice and religious dimensions of identities have not been fully explored in the context of teacher education. Too often, in the schooling context, what religion is and what constitutes an authentic religious identity operates in European American epistemologies. By examining the beliefs and practices of preservice teachers, this article argues for the need to emphasize topics of religious diversity in teacher education programs since teachers will undoubtedly teach those who come from diverse religious backgrounds. In particular, the article explores how various students in the study negotiated and resisted recognizing structural discourses on religion, especially when religious issues interconnected with race and gender topics. Overall, the author proposes that teacher educators include religion when teaching about social differences, particularly how religious dimensions of ...