Showing papers on "Spatial ability published in 2015"

Thinking About Spatial Thinking: New Typology, New Assessments

Abstract: Our world is a world that exists in space, and a world without space is literally inconceivable. Given this basic truth, it is clear that living in the world requires spatial functioning of some kind. Being creative in this world, and designing new tools and new habitats, probably requires even higher levels of spatial functioning. And people vary in their levels of spatial ability. What do these facts mean for the field of design? There are certain obvious practical questions. For example, should design schools accept only applicants who test high in spatial ability, following the lead of dental schools, which assess spatial thought on the Dental Admissions Test or with practical exercises in assignments such as tooth modeling? Or should design schools strive to enhance the spatial ability of anyone with the desire to do creative design, following the lead of selection committees for surgical residencies, which do not assess spatial ability in any way? The latter course is arguably supported by evidence (to be discussed later) showing that spatial skill is malleable. As another example of a practical question for design, consider what designers should or could know about the potential users of a product. What kinds and levels of spatial abilities should they assume that users will have? How would they be able to predict when a new tool will be too hard to master for many users, or when a building design will result in an environment in which many people easily get lost?

Building Blocks for Developing Spatial Skills Evidence From a Large, Representative U.S. Sample

Abstract: There is evidence suggesting that children's play with spatial toys (e.g., puzzles and blocks) correlates with spatial development. Females play less with spatial toys than do males, which arguably accounts for males' spatial advantages; children with high socioeconomic status (SES) also show an advantage, though SES-related differences in spatial play have been less studied than gender-related differences. Using a large, nationally representative sample from the standardization study of the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-Fourth Edition, and controlling for other cognitive abilities, we observed a specific relation between parent-reported frequency of spatial play and Block Design scores that was invariant across gender and SES. Reported spatial play was higher for boys than for girls, but controlling for spatial play did not eliminate boys' relative advantage on this subtest. SES groups did not differ in reported frequency of spatial play. Future research should consider quality as well as quantity of play, and should explore underlying mechanisms to evaluate causality.

How Much Can Spatial Training Improve STEM Achievement

Abstract: Spatial training has been indicated as a possible solution for improving Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) achievement and degree attainment. Advocates for this approach have noted that the correlation between spatial ability and several measures of STEM achievement suggests that spatial training should focus on improving students’ spatial ability. Although spatial ability can be improved with targeted training, few studies have examined specifically the relation between spatial training and STEM achievement. In this brief report, we review the evidence to date for the effectiveness of spatial training. We argue that spatial training offers one of the many promising avenues for increasing student success in STEM fields, but research studies that show such training causally improve retention, achievement, and degree attainment remain outstanding.

How Spatial Abilities and Dynamic Visualizations Interplay When Learning Functional Anatomy With 3D Anatomical Models

Abstract: The emergence of dynamic visualizations of three-dimensional (3D) models in anatomy curricula may be an adequate solution for spatial difficulties encountered with traditional static learning, as they provide direct visualization of change throughout the viewpoints. However, little research has explored the interplay between learning material presentation formats, spatial abilities, and anatomical tasks. First, to understand the cognitive challenges a novice learner would be faced with when first exposed to 3D anatomical content, a six-step cognitive task analysis was developed. Following this, an experimental study was conducted to explore how presentation formats (dynamic vs. static visualiza-tions) support learning of functional anatomy, and affect subsequent anatomical tasks derived from the cognitive task analysis. A second aim was to investigate the interplay between spatial abilities (spatial visualization and spatial relation) and presentation formats when the functional anatomy of a 3D scapula and the associated shoulder flexion movement are learned. Findings showed no main effect of the presentation formats on performances, but revealed the predictive influence of spatial visualization and spatial relation abilities on performance. However, an interesting interaction between presentation formats and spatial relation ability for a specific anatomical task was found. This result highlighted the influence of presentation formats when spatial abilities are involved as well as the differentiated influence of spatial abilities on anatomical tasks.

Talking Shape: Parental Language with Electronic versus Traditional Shape Sorters.

Abstract: As the traditional toys of the past are quickly being replaced with electronically “enhanced” toys, it is important to understand how these changes impact parent–child interactions, especially in light of the evidence that the richness and variety of these interactions have long-term effects on diverse areas of cognition (Hart & Risley, 1995). Here, we compared the quantity and quality of the language children hear during play with either a traditional (nonelectronic) or an electronic shape sorter designed to teach children about geometric shapes. Spatial toys and spatial language, in particular, were explored since recent work has established that parents' use of spatial language links to children's short- and long-term performance on spatial tasks (Pruden, Levine, & Huttenlocher, 2011), and that spatial skills are relevant to success in learning mathematics and science (Newcombe, 2010). Traditional toys prompted more parental spatial language and more varied overall language than did electronic toys.

Development of a Cognition-Priming Model Describing Learning in a STEM Classroom.

Abstract: Successful STEM learning depends on the interaction of affect, cognition, and application of ideas. Simply put students who are unwilling to persist in STEM based endeavors do not suddenly develop into scientists, mathematicians, engineers or computer scientists, nor do they seek out STEM related courses or STEM based careers. The purpose of this study is to investigate content, cognitive, and affective outcomes related to STEM integrated curriculum within the K-5 arena. Educational and psychological literature tends to focus one aspect of the other when examining the role of affect and cognition on student outcomes. Current trends in educational measurement and psychometrics have begun to address the artificial disconnect that exists between affect, cognition, and content outcomes within the science education literature. The methods used to develop the results within this study are a mixture of quantitative methods to develop a model of learning occurring in a STEM school. Using ANOVA, structural equation modeling, and model analysis, an understanding of the problems presented becomes clear. Analysis of model fit statistics suggests adequate model fit (χ2(21) = 30.91, p = 0.075, CFI = 0.94, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.04, SRMR = 0.05). The standardized structural coefficients for the path from group to each of the constructs is statistically significant (p < 0.05) thus indicating that the two groups differ on the constructs of self-efficacy, science interest, spatial visualization, and mental rotation. An estimate of effect size of the mean group difference across the statistically significant constructs reveals self-efficacy (d = 1.27, large), science interest (d = 1.97, large), spatial visualization (d = 1.30, large), and mental rotation (d = 1.42, large). There is considerable evidence that the inclusion, STEM integrated learning at the earlier elementary level becomes critically important for the students as they progress in school. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 52: 410–437, 2015

The Role of 2D and 3D Mental Rotation in Mathematics for Young Children: What Is It? Why Does It Matter? And What Can We Do about It?.

Abstract: The ability to mentally rotate objects in space has been singled out by cognitive scientists as a central metric of spatial reasoning (see Jansen, Schmelter, Quaiser-Pohl, Neuburger, & Heil, 2013; Shepard & Metzler, 1971 for example). However, this is a particularly undeveloped area of current mathematics curricula, especially in North America. In this article we discuss what we mean by mental rotation, why it is important, and how it can be developed with young children in classrooms. We feature results from one team of teacher-researchers in Canada engaged in Lesson Study to develop enhanced theoretical understandings as well as practical applications in a geometry program that incorporates 2D and 3D mental rotations. Children in the Lesson Study classrooms (ages 4–8 years) demonstrated large gains in their mental rotation skills during 4 months of Lesson Study intervention in the Math for Young Children research program. The results of this study suggest that young children from a wide range of ability levels can engage in, and benefit from, classroom-based mental rotation activities. The study contributes to bridging a gap between cognitive science and mathematics education literature.

Mental Rotation With Tangible Three-Dimensional Objects: A New Measure Sensitive to Developmental Differences in 4- to 8-Year-Old Children

Abstract: There is an emerging consensus that spatial thinking is fundamental to later success in math and science. The goals of this study were to design and evaluate a novel test of three-dimensional (3D) mental rotation for 4- to 8-year- old children (N = 165) that uses tangible 3D objects. Results revealed that the measure was both valid and reliable and indicated steady growth in 3D mental rotation between the ages of 4 and 8. Performance on the measure was highly related to success on a measure of two-dimensional (2D) mental rotation, even after controlling for executive functioning. Although children as young as 5 years old performed above chance, 3D mental rotation appears to be a difficult skill for most children under the age of 7, as indicated by frequent guessing and difficulty with mirror objects. The test is a useful new tool for studying the development of 3D mental rotation in young children.

No evidence for a fixed object limit in working memory: Spatial ensemble representations inflate estimates of working memory capacity for complex objects.

Abstract: A central question for models of visual working memory is whether the number of objects people can remember depends on object complexity. Some influential “slot” models of working memory capacity suggest that people always represent 3–4 objects and that only the fidelity with which these objects are represented is affected by object complexity. The primary evidence supporting this claim is the finding that people can detect large changes to complex objects (consistent with remembering at least 4 individual objects), but that small changes cannot be detected (consistent with low-resolution representations). Here we show that change detection with large changes greatly overestimates individual item capacity when people can use global representations of the display to detect such changes. When the ability to use such global ensemble or texture representations is reduced, people remember individual information about only 1–2 complex objects. This finding challenges models that propose people always remember a fixed number of objects, regardless of complexity, and supports a more flexible model with an important role for spatial ensemble representations.

Exploration as a Mediator of the Relation between the Attainment of Motor Milestones and the Development of Spatial Cognition and Spatial Language.

Abstract: The embodied-cognition approach views cognition and language as grounded in daily sensorimotor child-environment interactions. Therefore, the attainment of motor milestones is expected to play a role in cognitive-linguistic development. Early attainment of unsupported sitting and independent walking indeed predict better spatial cognition and language at later ages. However, evidence linking these milestones with the development of spatial language and evidence regarding factors that might mediate this relation are scarce. The current study examined whether exploration of spatial-relational object properties (e.g., the possibility of containing or stacking) and exploration of the space through self-locomotion mediate the effect of, respectively, age of sitting and age of walking on spatial cognition and spatial language. Thus, we hypothesized that an earlier age of sitting and walking predicts, respectively, higher levels of spatial-relational object exploration and exploration through self-locomotion, which in turn, predict better spatial cognition and spatial language at later ages. Fifty-nine Dutch children took part in a longitudinal study. A combination of tests, observations, and parental reports was used to measure motor development, exploratory behavior (age 20 months), spatial memory (age 24 months), spatial processing (age 32 months), and spatial language (age 36 months). Results show that attainment of sitting predicted spatial memory and spatial language, but spatial-relational object exploration did not mediate these effects. Attainment of independent walking predicted spatial processing and spatial language, and exploration through self-locomotion (partially) mediated these relations. These findings extend previous work and provide partial support for the hypotheses about the mediating role of exploration.

Relationship between spatial ability, visuospatial working memory and self-assessed spatial orientation ability: a study in older adults.

Abstract: This paper describes some novel spatial tasks and questionnaires designed to assess spatial and orientation abilities. The new tasks and questionnaires were administered to a sample of 90 older adults (41 males, age range 57–90), along with some other tests of spatial ability (Minnesota Paper Form Board, Mental Rotations Test, and Embedded Figures Test) and tests of visuospatial working memory (Corsi’s Block Test and Visual Pattern Test). The internal reliability of the new tasks and questionnaires was analyzed, as well as their relationship with the spatial and working memory tests. The results showed that the new spatial tasks are reliable, correlate with working memory and spatial ability tests and, compared with the latters, show stronger correlations with the self-report questionnaires referring to orientation abilities. A model was also tested (with reference to Allen et al. in Intelligence 22:327–355, 1996) in which the new tasks were assumed to relate to spatial ability and predict orientation abilities as assessed by the self-report measures.

Performance in a Visual Search Task Uniquely Predicts Reading Abilities in Third-Grade Hong Kong Chinese Children.

Abstract: This study examined the relation between the performance in a visual search task and reading ability in 92 third-grade Hong Kong Chinese children. The visual search task, which is considered a measure of visual-spatial attention, accounted for unique variance in Chinese character reading after controlling for age, nonverbal intelligence, vocabulary knowledge, morphological awareness, phonological awareness, orthographic knowledge, and rapid automatized naming. Visual search skill also explained unique variance in reading comprehension after further controlling for Chinese character reading. The findings of the present study underscore the importance of visual-spatial attention for Chinese reading, at both the character and text levels.

Understanding Language, Hearing Status, and Visual-Spatial Skills

Abstract: It is frequently assumed that deaf individuals have superior visual-spatial abilities relative to hearing peers and thus, in educational settings, they are often considered visual learners. There is some empirical evidence to support the former assumption, although it is inconsistent, and apparently none to support the latter. Three experiments examined visual-spatial and related cognitive abilities among deaf individuals who varied in their preferred language modality and use of cochlear implants (CIs) and hearing individuals who varied in their sign language skills. Sign language and spoken language assessments accompanied tasks involving visual-spatial processing, working memory, nonverbal logical reasoning, and executive function. Results were consistent with other recent studies indicating no generalized visual-spatial advantage for deaf individuals and suggested that their performance in that domain may be linked to the strength of their preferred language skills regardless of modality. Hearing individuals performed more strongly than deaf individuals on several visual-spatial and self-reported executive functioning measures, regardless of sign language skills or use of CIs. Findings are inconsistent with assumptions that deaf individuals are visual learners or are superior to hearing individuals across a broad range of visual-spatial tasks. Further, performance of deaf and hearing individuals on the same visual-spatial tasks was associated with differing cognitive abilities, suggesting that different cognitive processes may be involved in visual-spatial processing in these groups.

The effect of origami-based instruction on spatial visualization, geometry achievement, and geometric reasoning

Abstract: This research study examined the effect of origami-based geometry instruction on spatial visualization, geometry achievement, and geometric reasoning of tenth-grade students in Turkey. The sample (n = 184) was chosen from a tenth-grade population of a public high school in Turkey. It was a quasi-experimental pretest/posttest design. A control group (94 students) received regular instruction during a geometry unit in a tenth-grade classroom whereas an experimental group (90 students) received origami-based instruction for 4 weeks. The Spatial Visualization Test (SVT) was used to measure students’ spatial visualization ability in this study. The SVT consists of the Card Rotation Test, Cube Comparison Test, and the Paper Folding Test which were originally developed by Ekstrom, French, Harman & Derman (1976) and translated into Turkish by Delialioglu (1996). Besides, Geometry Achievement Test and Geometric Reasoning Test were developed by the researcher to measure geometry achievement level and geometric reasoning level of participants in key aspects of triangles. All tests had versions of pretest and posttest, and these tests were administered to both groups. A repeated-measures Analysis of Variance was used on each test scores to analyze data. The results indicated that origami-based instruction had significant effect on all dependent variables (spatial visualization, geometry achievement, and geometric reasoning). This suggested that origami might be integrated into high school geometry lessons to make geometry learning more effective.

Looking within and beyond the Geometry Curriculum: Connecting Spatial Reasoning to Mathematics Learning.

Abstract: This commentary adopts a broad perspective in considering the contributions of papers from cross- and interdisciplinary fields of mathematics education, psychology, child development and neuroscience. The discussion aims to complement the commentary by Dindyal, focused on background research on geometry and implications for pedagogy and curricula. Spatial reasoning is considered as a common underlying theme salient to most of the papers in this issue. The fundamental role of spatial ability or visual thinking skills in young children is traced through the various theoretical approaches of studies ranging from concepts such as perspective taking, symmetry, and two- and three-dimensional shape, to the role of technological tools in mapping and location. Intervention studies to promote early spatial reasoning also provide insight into effective transformative practices. New questions are raised about the crucial development of spatial reasoning in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) education. The commentary suggests the need for a more strategic research agenda that aims to coordinate the key questions and methodologies that investigate what may seem common problems.

Fostering spatial skill acquisition by general chemistry students

Abstract: The study of chemistry requires the understanding and use of spatial relationships, which can be challenging for many students Prior research has shown that there is a need to develop students' spatial reasoning skills To that end, this study implemented guided activities designed to strengthen students' spatial skills, with the aim of improving their understanding of spatial relationships that exist within and between molecules Undergraduate STEM majors, taking the second semester of a two-semester general chemistry course, engaged in these activities This study followed a quasi-experimental design, in which the experimental (n = 209) and the control group (n = 212) were administered a pre-test At the completion of the semester, both groups participated in a post-test designed to measure spatial skill acquisition A one-way ANOVA confirmed that student performance differed significantly between the three interventions and the control group Students who completed three activities scored higher than those who completed only two, suggesting continuity is an important feature of spatial training In particular, our results show improvement in three skill areas: symmetry plane identification, visualization of molecules and translation between 2D and 3D representations The results of this study show that spatial skills can be successfully enhanced through the use of relevant guided activities designed to improve student understanding of external representations Our findings show that the use of activities which require students to sketch molecular models from different perspectives, locate a plane of symmetry on a 3D model and on a 2D sketch of the same molecule, as well as position physical models to match 2D sketches containing dash/wedge cues is an effective approach to the teaching and learning of spatial skills in general chemistry

Learning Geometry with Augmented Reality to Enhance Spatial Ability

Abstract: Spatial ability is considered essential in learning many disciplines. Studies have shown that providing students with geometry learning activities would help them develop spatial ability. Augmented Reality (AR) provides a combination of real and virtual worlds and allows students to view the spatial relationship of real world objects that is impossible to be implemented in traditional textbooks. This study have two purposes: (1) to develop an augmented reality system to assist students solve the Rubik's cube and learn the geometry concepts of volume and surface area, and (2) to examine the effects of using the system in terms of students' improvement on spatial ability, geometry achievement, and attitudes toward learning. The system is still under development and the evaluation is yet to be done.

Action at an attentional distance: A study of children's reasoning about causes and effects involving spatial and attentional discontinuity

Abstract: Spatial discontinuity between causes and effects is a feature of many scientific concepts, particularly those in the environmental and ecological sciences. Causes can be spatially separated from their effects by great distances. Action at a distance, the idea that causes and effects can be separated in physical space, is a well-studied concept in developmental psychology. However, the extant literature has focused largely on cases where causes and effects are separated in physical space but are contained within the same attentional space, for instance, how magnets on a table interact or how a lamp projected against an object creates a shadow despite the spatial gap between the lamp, object, and shadow. This paper considers the understanding of causes and effects that are separated both in physical and attentional space—a concept referred to here as “action at an attentional distance.” Findings from an in-depth study of second, fourth and sixth graders' (n = 10) reasoning about action at an attentional distance are presented. Children tended to reason locally, but when they did reason about action at an attentional distance, they relied upon mechanism information and prior knowledge. The implications for causal explanation and instructional design are considered. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Res Sci Teach 52: 1003–1030, 2015.

An examination of interactions in a three-dimensional virtual world

Abstract: Three-dimensional (3D) virtual worlds hold the users' attention by providing rich interaction in an environment similar to the real world. User engagement duration is known to increase in environments with intense interaction. However, information in the literature about whether gender, experience, or spatial ability affects interaction in these environments is limited. In this study, these three factors are compared to users' depth of interaction in a 3D virtual world. In addition, the relationships between engagement duration, spatial ability, and depth of interaction are examined to investigate whether the first two factors can predict the third. Findings showed that users' depth of interaction was not influenced by gender, but experience and spatial ability did affect interaction. A strong relationship was determined between depth of interaction and engagement duration, and a moderate relationship was found between depth of interaction and spatial ability. Findings indicated that when designing 3D environments, it is important to consider which kinds of tasks provide more interaction and to what extent spatial abilities affect interaction, as well as to prepare activities that will increase engagement duration and to devise strategies to enhance depth of interaction. Depth of interaction was affected by experience and spatial ability.Strong relationship was found between depth of interaction and engagement duration.Moderate relationship was found between interaction and spatial ability.Engagement duration alone explains 20% of the users' depth of interaction.Spatial ability together with engagement duration explains 36% of interaction.

Development of the spatial ability self-report scale (SASRS): reliability and validity studies

Abstract: In this study, a self-report measure of spatial ability, the Spatial Ability Self-Report Scale (SASRS), was developed to evaluate undergraduates’ spatial abilities. A total of 362 undergraduates from a government university in central Turkey participated. Exploratory factor analysis with promax oblique rotation revealed three factors: Object Manipulation Spatial Ability (OMSA), Spatial Navigational Ability (SNA), and Visual Memory (VM). Confirmatory factor analysis confirmed that these factors constituted a model-with good fit. A concurrent validity study using the Mental Rotations Test (MRT) demonstrated significant correlations between OMSA and the overall scale. However, the correlations between MRT and SNA and MRT and VM were not significant. The item analysis, internal consistency and test–retest reliability findings suggested that the eighteen items on the SASRS have a three-factor structure and that the scale is valid and reliable.

Conceptual Transformation and Cognitive Processes in Origami Paper Folding

Abstract: Research on problem solving typically does not address tasks that involve following detailed and/or illustrated step-by-step instructions. Such tasks are not seen as cognitively challenging problems to be solved. In this paper, we challenge this assumption by analyzing verbal protocols collected during an Origami folding task. Participants verbalised thoughts well beyond reading or reformulating task instructions, or commenting on actions. In particular, they compared the task status to pictures in the instruction, evaluated the progress so far, referred to previous experience, expressed problems and confusions, and�crucially�added complex thoughts and ideas about the current instructional step. The last two categories highlight the fact that participants conceptualised this spatial task as a problem to be solved, and used creativity to achieve this aim. Procedurally, the verbalisations reflect a typical order of steps: reading�reformulating�reconceptualising�evaluating. During reconceptualisation, the creative range of spatial concepts represented in language highlights the complex mental operations involved when transferring the two-dimensional representation into the real world. We discuss the implications of our findings in terms of problem solving as a multilayered process involving diverse types of cognitive effort, consider parallels to known conceptual challenges involved in interpreting spatial descriptions, and reflect on the benefit of reconceptualisation for cognitive processes.

I believe I’m good at orienting myself… But is that true?

Abstract: The present study aimed to analyse beliefs that men and women have with respect to their sense of direction (SOD) and whether they correlate with spatial environmental task performance. Eighty-four students filled in the short version of the Familiarity and Spatial Cognitive Style Scale to evaluate beliefs on their SOD, knowledge of the city (TK), spatial ability (SA) and wayfinding (WA) and performed three spatial environmental tasks. Results showed that gender did not predict the performance on the spatial environmental tasks, whereas it can be predicted by participants’ beliefs related to their SOD and TK. The findings point out the need to identify specific training aimed at improving women’s metacognitive skills in order to delete or reduce gender differences in SA.