Showing papers on "Water scarcity published in 1999"

Climate change and global water resources

Abstract: By 2025, it is estimated that around 5 billion people, out of a total population of around 8 billion, will be living in countries experiencing water stress (using more than 20% of their available resources). Climate change has the potential to impose additional pressures in some regions. This paper describes an assessment of the implications of climate change for global hydrological regimes and water resources. It uses climate change scenarios developed from Hadley Centre climate simulations (HadCM2 and HadCM3), and simulates global river #ows at a spatial resolution of 0.5]0.53 using a macro-scale hydrological model. Changes in national water resources are calculated, including both internally generated runo! and upstream imports, and compared with national water use estimates developed for the United Nations Comprehensive Assessment of the Freshwater Resources of the World. Although there is variation between scenarios, the results suggest that average annual runo! will increase in high latitudes, in equatorial Africa and Asia, and southeast Asia, and will decrease in mid-latitudes and most subtropical regions. The HadCM3 scenario produces changes in runo! which are often similar to those from the HadCM2 scenarios * but there are important regional di!erences. The rise in temperature associated with climate change leads to a general reduction in the proportion of precipitation falling as snow, and a consequent reduction in many areas in the duration of snow cover. This has implications for the timing of stream#ow in such regions, with a shift from spring snow melt to winter runo!. Under the HadCM2 ensemble mean scenario, the number of people living in countries with water stress would increase by 53 million by 2025 (relative to those who would be a!ected in the absence of climate change). Under the HadCM3 scenario, the number of people living in countries with water stress would rise by 113 million. However, by 2050 there would be a net reduction in populations in stressed countries under HadCM2 (of around 69 million), but an increase of 56 million under HadCM3. The study also showed that di!erent indications of the impact of climate change on water resource stresses could be obtained using di!erent projections of future water use. The paper emphasises the large range between estimates of ‘impacta, and also discusses the problems associated with the scale of analysis and the de"nition of indices of water resource impact. ( 1999 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Modernity and Hybridity: Nature, Regeneracionismo, and the Production of the Spanish Waterscape, 1890–1930

Abstract: Spain is arguably the European country where the water crisis has become most acute in recent years. The political and ecological importance of water is not, however, only a recent development in Spain. Throughout this century, water politics, economics, culture, and engineering have infused and embodied the myriad tensions and conflicts that drove and still drive Spanish society. And although the significance of water on the Iberian peninsula has attracted considerable scholarly and other attention, the central role of water politics, water culture, and water engineering in shaping Spanish society on the one hand, and the contemporary water geography and ecology of Spain as the product of centuries of socioecological interaction on the other, have remained largely unexplored. The hybrid character of the water landscape, or “waterscape,” comes to the fore in Spain in a clear and unambiguous manner. The socionatural production of Spanish society can be illustrated by excavating the central role of water po...

Water scarcity in the twenty-first century

Abstract: As we approach the next century, more than a quarter of the world's population or a third of the population in developing countries live in regions that will experience severe water scarcity. This paper reports on a study to project water supply and demand for 118 countries over the 1990-2025 period. The nature and geographic focus of growing water scarcity are identified. In the semi-arid regions of Asia and the Middle East, which include some of the major breadbaskets of the world, the ground water table is falling at an alarming rate. There is an urgent need to focus the attention of both professionals and policy makers on the problems of ground water depletion, which must be seen as the major threat to food security in the coming century.

Formal and informal markets for water : institutions, performance, and constraints

Abstract: Water markets either formal or informal can be an efficient method for reallocating scarce water supplies. At the same time certain constraints can raise the transaction costs of trading water. This paper reviews the conditions necessary to establish successful water markets, identifies potential problems, and offers mitigating strategies. It also uses examples of several informal and formal water markets already in operation to illustrate these problems and the solutions to them. This article proposes that countries facing water shortages under their current water pricing systems consider water marketing as a way to reallocate water resources. Authors illustrate the importance of understanding a country's institutional framework before embarking on a comprehensive overhaul of water policies and review the conditions required for effective water markets. Recent studies of formal and informal markets highlight the gains from the efficient allocation of water as well as the constraints that raise the transaction costs of trading water. As authors point out, water markets can provide the appropriate economic incentives to improve the efficiency of water use and encourage the reallocation of water to higher-valued uses without encountering the traditional opposition of existing water users.

A Grid-Based Approach to Water Scarcity Estimates for Eastern and Southern Africa

Abstract: A novel approach is taken to the problem of estimating global water scarcity, using a realistic and consistent procedure applied across many countries. Water demands, surface flows and groundwater availability are estimated on a gridded basis, and various water availability indices are derived comparing the resource with the projected demand. Surface flows are estimated using a conceptual rainfall-runoff model linking climate to runoff and, in the major river basins, the runoff estimates for individual grid cells are accumulated to give estimates for the total flows at all points of interest. Groundwater availability is derived from hydrogeological maps based on estimates of the potential yield that can be expected from a borehole and the likely maximum borehole density. Estimates of potential groundwater recharge derived from the surface water model are also taken into account. Water demands are based on current and projected population and livestock numbers, and information on irrigation schemes and industrial water use. Results are presented for the application of the model to a region covering the whole of eastern and southern Africa. The main scenario considered includes the combined impact of climate change, population growth and improved living standards to the year 2050. The results for this scenario show that water scarcity is likely to increase in many countries in the region, with particular problems in the countries around Lake Victoria and in the southernmost parts of the pilot region.

Water challenge and institutional response (a cross-country perspective)

Abstract: This cross-country evaluation of institutional responses to problems in the water sector shows that changes in the nature of water problems have changed the development paradigm underlying water institutions. There is increasing recognition of how decentralized allocation mechanisms can influence economic forces and stakeholders in water sector decisions. As the notion of water provision as a public good and welfare activity gives way to the concept of water as an economic good and an input of economic activity, there is more policy concern about efficient and equitable use, cost recovery, and financial viability. All of the countries the authors studied (Australia, Brazil, Chile, China, India, Israel, Mexico, Morocco, South Africa, Spain, and Sri Lanka) are committed to changing the policies and institutions that have caused the present water sector crisis, but they are at different stages of institutional reform. Among cases discussed, Australia and Chile (and, in the United States, California and Colorado) are at an advanced (though not ideal) stage of institutional change. Israel, with its technologically advanced water sector, could well be ahead of them when the proposal to allow water transfers and decentralize water development and distribution systems takes practical shape. Tentative conclusions reached by the authors are: 1) Attempts to fix isolated parts of the water sector will influence other dimensions but an integrated approach is best. At the heart of such an approach should be institutional changes aimed at modernizing and strengthening legal, policy, and administrative arrangements for the whole sector. 2) Institutional changes taking place everywhere suggest that the opportunity costs of (and net gain from) institutional change is not uniform, suggesting that opportunity and transaction costs vary. 3) Funding agencies should focus efforts and resources in countries, areas, and subsectors that already have enough critical mass in institution-building to ensure success and lower transaction costs. 4) The sequence and pace of reform should reflect realities of scale economies and political pressures from reform constituencies. When possible, political economy should be exploited to move reform along more quickly.

Management of water scarcity: A focus on social capacities and options

Abstract: Water is a scarce resource. It is critical to social and economic development, and directly affects the behaviour of society. With close links between society and water management, the importance of social and economic approaches to management of water scarcity is increasingly being recognized. The focus is here on the adaptive capacity of societies both for policy making and for conflict resolution to address water scarcity, recognizing the limitations in these adaptive capacities. Social resource scarcity could limit not only capacity to address water scarcity but also have wider social security implications for adaptive processes. There is therefore a need to develop policy options to stimulate adaptive processes and strengthen social resource capacity. Further, the paper discusses the links between water scarcity and its driving forces, such as population increase, environmental degradation and unequal access to water, and the various categories of related conflicts. The need to consider the social resource capacity of countries and societies and the use of alternative indicators for this purpose is addressed using the UNDP Human Development Index as a proxy for the social adaptive capacity of societies. A broad programme of research and capacity building in the use of a composite biological-social index could be expected to trigger a better understanding between disciplines and re-focus technical cooperation programmes on social issues. While markets can sometimes react efficiently to mitigate water scarcity, the necessary institutional conditions are seldom met. Social, environmental and equity parameters also need to be considered in applying market approaches, and neo-classical water resources economics is losing ground to economic paradigms related to political and evolutionary processes. Macro- and sectoral issues are increasingly at the forefront of the water scarcity debate, involving a range of questions: from virtual water, high costs of O&M, to privatization of water sector operations. Macro and sector policies often have an important impact on realization of socio-economic and environmental benefits from present and future investments in the water sector. A country's overall development strategy and use of macro-economic policies, including fiscal, monetary and trade policies, affect water demand and investment. As a consequence, there is need for an integrated approach encompassing social, economic and environmental policies. The paper draws from examples on water scarcity management that were presented in a recent FAO electronic conference and in regional expert consultations on water scarcity management in the Near East.

Economic effects of climate change on US water resources

Abstract: Water is a critical resource in many activities, including domestic use (e.g. cooking, cleaning, and drinking), food production, power generation, transportation, many commercial and manufacturing processes, pollution assimilation, recreation, and many biological and ecological processes. Changes in the spatial and temporal distributions of runoff, and in the quality of water, can have profound social and economic consequences. Such changes are projected by some climate researchers as a result of increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases (IPCC, 1996). The symptoms of climate change, including sustained changes in temperatures, precipitation patterns, and the frequency and intensity of droughts and storms, may signal the need for changes in water-use patterns and other strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change. In a comprehensive assessment of possible climate change effects, it is important to consider both the physical and economic dimensions of the change. Existing assessments of climate change impacts on water resources have been largely based on the results from physical models, which have simulated changes in runoff and occasionally in water-use patterns. The value of these assessments, however, is limited by the absence of economic adjustment, specifically the response of water users to changes in water scarcity (i.e. prices). To describe more completely how the changes in water availability and climate affect social welfare, it is necessary to integrate models describing the physical effects (e.g. hydrologic changes) with models describing economic and institutional responses.

Water Resources in the Mediterranean Region

Abstract: Mediterranean environments raise very specific problems for water resources management. Asymmetries of water availability and needs in annual and inter-annual terms and a peculiar relationship among water, soil and environment are some of these problems. In these environments, an integrated approach for water resources management is required. In this paper, a brief review of water needs and water availability in the Mediterranean countries is presented and the most relevant management issues raised by water scarcity are briefly discussed. Data on freshwater resources and on the distribution of different sectoral water uses in 19 countries of the Mediterranean region is presented and discussed. The close relationship between water resources management and land-use management is emphasized as a key issue for the integrated management of water in the region. The consequences of water shortages and the increase of water and land stressed situations may be aggravated in the future by climatic change. ...

Impact on food security and rural development of reallocating water from agriculture

Abstract: The competition for limited water resources between agriculture and more highly valued domestic and industrial water uses is rapidly increasing and will likely require the transfer of water out of agriculture. This paper reviews and synthesizes the available evidence of the effects of water transfers from agricultural to urban and industrial areas on local and regional rural economies; and analyzes the potential impacts of a large reallocation on global food supply and demand. It concludes with a discussion on the potential for water policy reform and demand management to minimize adverse impacts when water is reallocated from agriculture. It is argued that comprehensive reforms are required to mitigate the potentially adverse impacts of water transfers for local communities and to sustain crop yield and output growth to meet rising food demands at the global level. Key policy reforms include the establishment of secure water rights to users; the decentralization and privatization of water management functions to appropriate levels; the use of incentives including pricing reform, especially in urban contexts, and markets in tradable property rights; and the introduction of appropriate water-saving technologies.

Role of Water Utility in the Korean National Economy

Abstract: The 'twin water crises' in terms of both quantity and quality clearly demand that researchers provide policy makers with available and responsible information regarding the role of water utility. This paper employs input-output (I-O) analysis to examine the role of water utility in the national economy, using a specific application to Korea. A static I-O framework is employed, focusing on three topics in its application: the impacts of water supply investments and the inter-industry linkage effect, the water supply shortage costs, and the impacts of the rise in water rates. In addition, potential uses of the results are illustrated from the perspective of policy instruments. The overall results indicate that water supply investment and water shortage have a big influence on the standard of living and industrial production, but raising water rates in order to encourage conservation or to create investment funds has a minor effect on general price levels.

Water Politics in the Middle East: A Context for Conflict or Cooperation?

Abstract: List of Maps List of Tables Acknowledgements and Dedication Glossary Preface Introduction Five Approaches to Water Scarcity Water Scarcity: A Global Problem? Water Politics in the Jordan River Basin Water Politics in the Euphrates-Tigris Basin Water Politics in the Arabian Peninsula Conclusion Bibliography Index

Water scarcity variations within a country: a case study of Sri Lanka

Abstract: Several studies on present and future water scarcities rank Sri Lanka as a country with either little or no water-scarcity or moderate waterscarcity conditions (Falkenmark, Lundqvist, and Widstrand 1989; Engleman and Leroy 1993; Raskin et al. 1997; Seckler et al. 1998; Seckler, Barker, and Amarasinghe 1999). These studies used the aggregated information presented in the form of statistics at national level. However, the aggregated statistics on water scarcity at national level are sometimes misleading for countries with large regional variations. All these earlier studies had ignored spatial and temporal variations of water availability and demand from their waterscarcity calculations. The main objective of this study is to assess the spatial and seasonal variations of water supply and demand, and also scarcities at district level in Sri Lanka.

Water crisis : Current perceptions and future realities : Water technology transfer

Abstract: Water crisis was not considered seriously at the Dublin and Rio conferences. It was put on the world agenda primarily by the Stockholm Water Symposia. Water management is likely to change more during the next twenty years compared to the past 2,000 years. The paper reviews the global water situtation based on the latest data available. In terms of water availability, it concludes that one can now be cautiously optimistic of the global water future. If there is to be a crisis, it is likely to be for two reasons: water quality and lack of investments. Neither of these two issues are receiving adquate attention at present. The roles IWRA can play in the future are briefly outlined.

Institutions, Politics, and Contracts : The Attempt to Privatize the Water and Sanitation Utility of Lima, Peru

Abstract: The main reason Lima failed to implement a concession was geographical: the scarcity of water sources meant high marginal costs, partly for pumping water from deep wells and building adequate storage for dry periods. High extraction costs were compounded by years of neglect; much of the system needed to be replaced. Attracting private investors meant setting prices high enough to recover these high costs and provide a reasonable return on capital. But the government had subsidized costs for years, so a concession would have required a sharp and sudden price increase to cover marginal costs. Moreover, any forward-looking investor would want to slow the pace of future investment by curbing demand through more effective (meter-based) bill collection. And cross-subsidies, which reduce the incentive to conserve water, would also have to be reduced. The ultimate cause of the concession's failure was geographical but the proximate cause was political. Privatizing a utility is politically tricky if it involves higher prices and the controversial ceding of monopoly powers to private parties, especially foreigners. Private participation in water is further hampered by the social importance of water and by the lack of international experience and the technical difficulties in designing privatization reform in the sector. At the same time, water offers fewer benefits than other utlities--few revenues to reward supporters or compensate losers-- and the price increases likely in Peru would especially hurt the urban poor, who were important to the president's support base. After a favorable start, the political equation shifted against privatization. The concession's failure was costly, in access goals not fully met, in adverse effects on health, and in the failure to curb consumption through metering--and hence in continued depletion of the aquifer and its increasing contamination by ocean salt. Peru's institutional weaknesses, especially its lack of an autonomous judiciary, might have limited how much could have been achieved. But considering the net gains from private operation in the much weaker nstitutional settings in Africa, Lima would probably have been better off with a concession.

Looking Ahead: Water, Life and the Environment in the Twenty-first Century

Abstract: This paper establishes the broad context for the research results reported in this special volume. It explores some of the broad technical, social, and economic forces that will influence water management and demand and supply of water in the twenty-first century. IWMI's work will contribute to a broader global effort, preparing a "Vision for Water, Life and the Environment in the Twenty-first Century", launched recently by the World Water Council. The world will have to go beyond the application of current thinking and creatively apply combinations of new technologies with principles like participation, devolution of authority, and pricing to cope with water scarcity equitably and effectively.

Sustainable solutions to water conflicts in the Jordan Valley

Abstract: The population of the Jordan Valley exceeds the carrying capacity of the hydrological system, which is integrated throughout the ecological region. Growing demand, largely driven by agriculture and unequal distribution of the shared water across political and religious boundaries, results in increased stress and conflict. The crisis can be mitigated in the short‐term by technology and a structural economic shift away from over‐reliance on agriculture. However, neither the public nor governmental leaders are prepared to make the essential domestic and regional changes. This article highlights how nongovernmental organisations such as Green Cross can act as catalysts to create an understanding of the sustainable options available for the resolution of this problem, by involving all societal actors in the process of evaluating the root causes of the water crisis and contributing to its solution, in strategic scenarios research adopted from the corporate world.

Improving the Productivity of Pakistan's Irrigation: the Importance of Management Choices.

Abstract: Pakistan is used as an illustration of the effect of water scarcity on the productivity of irrigated agriculture. Productivity is diminished by the accumulation of salts in the soil. Management alternatives to improve the situation are described. In many areas the only feasible solution is to gradually decrease the acreage of crops that require large amounts of water, such as sugarcane and rice. The productivity of irrigated agriculture is found to depend on the political will to make changes and set up a regulatory system to enforce new rules, as well as a significant attitudinal change on the part of the farmers involved.

Research and Development Policy

Abstract: Wastewater is considered a sanitary and health issue dealt with normally by local and health authorities. The degree of treatment is usually dictated by these authorities who lay down the criteria for treatment and discharge of effluents to water bodies, according to quality standards and the diluting effect of the estuaries and other recipient water bodies. Current standards in Israel are for a biological treatment which reduces the BOD level to 20 mg 1-1 and TSS to 30 mg 1-1 In addition, the local authorities are required to dispose of the effluents in a manner not harmful to the recipient water body. Treating wastewater to this standard is very costly and the Israeli Government has to assist local governments by providing grants and soft loans amounting to more than US$150 million yr-1 In Israel the situation is further complicated because, due to water scarcity, wastewater is highly regarded as potential water that can be treated and recycled, while considering the associated problem of environmental impact and cumulative pollution processes. Thus, the treatment and safe disposal of treated effluents is combined with a policy for reclamation and reuse of effluents as an integral part of the available water resources.

Thirst for reform ? private sector participation in providing Mexico City's water supply

Abstract: The case in Mexico City offered an opportunity to observe the advantages, and disadvantages of gradualist reform. Unfortunately, the authors find that the long-term nature of an incremental approach does not match well with the generally shorter-term horizons of elected politicians. Difficult decisions in implementation are left to later years, which pushes potentially unpopular actions onto the shoulders of future administrations, while allowing the current government to claim credit for instituting reform. The reform planned - and implemented - was not designed to tackle the city's most serious water problems, including over-consumption, and waste. And reform did little to change residential consumers' incentives to conserve water. Over-exploitation of the aquifer has been a problem since at least the 1930s. Mexico City is built on a series of drained lakebeds, and the land is soft, and prone to settling, or subsiding, as the aquifer is depleted. Several areas of the city center have sunk by over two meters in the past decade alone. And by virtue of its location, and elevation, the city's alternative water sources are expensive. The need for change is stark, but the power to undertake reform to tackle broad problems of resource management in the city, and surrounding areas, lies outside the jurisdiction of the Federal District, with the federal government. Such external funding of major supply projects, weakens the incentives for conservation. Reform reduced the increasing rate of over-exploitation of the aquifer, but partly by simply failing to meet demand. Reform to provide more equitable, and sustainable water delivery, must focus on improving the efficiency of operations, on substantially reforming the way water resources are priced, and allocated, and, on the design, management, and pricing of wastewater services. Federal subsidies for new production must be reduced, prices for system operators, and consumers must rise, and more must be invested in the treatment, and storage of wastewater - all of which requires strong political leadership.

Using International Law to Prevent Environmental Harm from Increased Use of Desalination

Abstract: I. INTRODUCTION If we ever competitively, at a cheap rate, get fresh water from salt water, it would be in the long range interests of humanity [and] would really dwarf any other scientific accomplishments. -John F Kennedy Nearly all (97.3%) of the world's water is in the oceans.1 Because of its salinity, this water is unsuitable for most economic and human life activities other than navigation, aquaculture, cooling, and recreation. Drinking, bathing, most industrial uses, and especially agriculture require water of considerably lower salinity. Of the small amount of water not contained in the oceans, the majority (77.2%) is ice.2 Most of the remainder is groundwater, much of which is fossil, saline, too deep to retrieve, or of otherwise limited usefulness or renewability.3 Demands on freshwater resources are constantly increasing, as a result of increases both in population and in per capita water demands. Both trends seem likely to continue for the foreseeable future. Currently, the United States consumes an average of 159 gallons of fresh water per person per day4 and may soon exceed 260 gallons per person per day.5 In contrast, half of the world's population consumes less than twenty-five gallons per person per day.6 The residents of India and Pakistan, for example, consume only nine gallons per person per day.7 As living standards in developing countries improve, the water demands of persons in those countries will approach levels in the developed world, resulting in a possible ten-fold increase in water consumption, even in the absence of a population increase.8 In much of the world, existing surface water and usable groundwater supplies are already fully exploited. Twenty-six countries are experiencing water scarcity.9 Twenty of these countries are in Africa and the Middle East; three of the others are small island states.10 The other three (Belgium, Hungary, and the Netherlands) are industrialized states with high population densities. Even in water-rich countries, regional water scarcity is common. San Diego, California, for example, imports over ninety percent of its water.11 By the year 2025, as much as one-third of the earth's population may live in water-scarce countries.12 A variety of means exists to increase available supplies of usable fresh water. Improved water conservation techniques, water reclamation, wastewater purification, development of drought-tolerant and salinity-tolerant crops, and transportation of water from unpopulated regions all offer means to alleviate water scarcity problems.13 Other technological fixes-increasing rainfall or transporting ice from the polar ice caps-- currently seem a bit more far-fetched. In any event, each of these solutions is not without its attendant environmental problems. Ultimately, even with full utilization of existing freshwater resources, demand will exceed supply. At that point, if not long before,14 attention will inevitably focus on the 97.3% of the earth's water contained in the oceans. In most areas of the world, desalination15 is currently more expensive than other means of obtaining fresh water.16 Ultimately this will change, either because improvements in desalination technology17 will bring down the cost or because other factors, such as rising population and diminishing supplies, will raise the costs of other sources of water. Already, the world's 11,066 desalination plants have a production capacity of 7.4 billion cubic meters of water per year, or about 0.2% of total worldwide water use.18 The next century will almost certainly see a dramatic increase in the desalination of seawater, brackish surface water, and saline groundwater. This increase in desalination will give rise to a variety of environmental problems; very few countries have adequate legal structures in place to limit the harm caused by desalination. This article will address existing desalination technologies and the problems they present, as well as existing law regarding desalination. …