Showing papers on "Westernization published in 2003"

The Great Chain of Orientalism: Jewish Identity, Stigma Management, and Ethnic Exclusion in Israel

Abstract: This paper explores the role that orientalism has played in shaping ethnic inequality among Jews in Israel. Earlier works usually explain ethnic exclusion as a function of Jewish life on Israeli territory. Here, however, exclusion is located within an earlier history of a Jewish encounter with orientalism and Western European colonialism. It is argued that prior to their immigration to Israel, Jews the world-over had been stigmatized as Oriental. Through a complex process, they accepted this stigma, and they arrived in Israel deeply invested in developing the new country as “western” and uncomfortable with anything identified as “eastern .” It is the imperatives of this westernization “identity project” that account for the initial impetus to exclude Middle Eastern Jews, as well as non-Jewish Arabs, from emerging Israeli society. Viewing history from this perspective, ethnic cleavages in the Jewish world appear to have a historical stability and consistency that is at odds with the current focus on contingency and historical indeterminacy.

The Battle for Asia: From Decolonization to Globalization

Abstract: Asia has long been an ideological battleground between capitalism and communism, between nationalism and Westernisation and between the nation-state and globalization. This book is a history of the Asian region from 1945 to the present day which delineates the various ideological battles over Asia's development. Subjects covered include:* theories of development* decolonization* US political and economic intervention* the effects of communism* the end of the Cold War* the rise of neo-liberalism* Asia after the crisis* Asia in the era of globalisationBroad in sweep and rich in theory and empirical detail, this is an essential account of the growth of 'Asian miracle' and its turbulent position in the global economy of the twenty-first century.

Paradise Lost? Social Change and Fa'afafine in Samoa

Abstract: Geographically isolated in the centre of the Pacific, Samoa has only recently become fully incorporated into economic and social forms of globalization. The past few decades have seen significant shifts in the construction and expression of gender and sexuality. Among the groups most affected are the fa'afafine, biological males who express feminine gender identities. These transgendered identities were `traditionally' most often enacted through labour, but fa'afafine subjectivities currently incorporate more and more western discourses of gender and sexuality. In this article, the author examines how westernization has resulted in the social marginalization of fa'afafine, but has also allowed access to a wider range of `imagined lives' than previously available. While globalization has inevitably and irrevocably changed the local life-worlds of Samoa, and thus the enactment of fa'afafine identities, the author argues that fa'afafine continue to enact culturally unique identities that incorporate aspects ...

Kings without crowns? The re-emergence of investigative journalism in China

Abstract: Over the last 10 years a genre of critical, abrasive journalism has emerged in China, particularly on television. Chinese journalists like to refer to it as 'investigative journalism' and, in doing so, they are consciously likening it to the Anglophone equivalent. This article examines how Chinese journalists describe their work. It also looks at the various possible explanations offered for the emergence and popularity of the genre: as an epiphenomenon of government reforms of the institutional and financing systems of the media; as a function of the irritation felt by professionals with past practices and the unsatisfied urge to participate of many Chinese citizens; because of the social roles ascribed to journalists both by themselves and by the citizenry; a response to new ideas from abroad, or 'westernization'. It is concluded that, while many topics and techniques of investigative journalism are analogous with those of Anglophone countries, the Chinese journalists appear to be striving to realize roles traditional to Chinese culture rather than adopting foreign models. The notion that the re-emergence of investigative journalism is an instance of 'westernization' is rejected. (Reprinted by permission of Sage Publications Ltd from de Burgh, Hugo (2003) Kings without crowns? The re-emergence of investigative journalism in China. © 2003 SAGE Publications).

From “Long Yang” and “Dui Shi” to Tongzhi: Homosexuality in China

Abstract: SUMMARY Homosexuality was widespread, recognized and fairly tolerated, although not entirely accepted, in ancient China. After being invaded and defeated by the Western powers in the mid- to late nineteenth century, “progressive” Chinese intellectuals at the turn of the twentieth century believed that Chinese traditions were “backward” and the actual cause of China's defeat; they looked to Westernization as a cure for the nation. This occurred at a time when homosexuality was regarded as a psychiatric condition in the West. Consequently, a pathological view of homosexuality and other antihomosexual attitudes were adopted by the Chinese along with Western technology and other “progressive thoughts.” It was only after 1949 that homosexual behavior was seriously punished in China and served as grounds for persecution during Chinese political upheavals between the 1950s and 1970s. In the 1980s, the Chinese government's “open door” policy made it possible for the Chinese gay and lesbian community to develop; i...

Queering development: institutionalized heterosexuality in development theory practice and politics in Latin America.

Abstract: Because of heterosexist biases in practice and theory lesbians and other queer women who struggle for political visibility and rights must address both heterosexism within the womens movement as well as sexism in maledominated gay" struggles in Latin America. In each of these arenas - womens movements and LGBT movements - activists must contend with Western biases in development frameworks and generally speaking with the contradictory effects of Westernization on/within Third World political movements. We cannot address all of these issues in this chapter; however we provide a precursory analysis of two important aspects of this discussion. First we propose to "queer" the development field through conducting an analysis of institutionalized heterosexuality (or heteronormativity) in development theory and practice and its effects on lesbians bisexual and heterosexual women. Second we discuss Latin American LGBT political responses to institutionalized heterosexuality in the development field and elsewhere. We approach the topic of development from an interdisciplinary perspective. Rather than providing an economistic explanation of development and of LGBT political responses to it we examine the economic as well as the political cultural social and ideological dimensions of development theory practice and politics. (excerpt)

Westernization and social transformations in Chinese music education, 1895-1949

Abstract: (2003). Westernization and social transformations in Chinese music education, 1895-1949. History of Education: Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 289-301.

Feminist post-development thought: "women in development" and the gendered paradoxes of survival in Bolivia.

Abstract: In this article I address the dilemmas of researching about womens lives in global perspective and examine feminist post-development thought and its potential contributions to womens studies curriculum and scholarship. On one hand feminist post-development scholars have called for further attention to Western feminisms role in reproducing global inequalities faced by many women in poor countries. Yet despite the need for this project we know from a variety of media and studies that there is still a need for "an anthropology of place" including an examination of regional histories prior to during and following colonization; a study of geography including a critical examination of the role of maps in constructing a global reality (e.g. most maps purchased in the United States divide India into two); further research on womens lives in poor countries including issues surrounding poverty but also womens contributions to art media literature politics and policy making to name only a few arenas; and an examination of how gender and womens bodies themselves have become "battlefields" for broader movements against modernization Westernization or U.S. imperialism. (excerpt)

The Impact of Culture on Group Behavior: A Comparison of Three Ethnic Groups

Abstract: Multicultural counseling has become an important discipline and a primary source for explaining human development and functioning (Lee, 1997; Pedersen, 1991); therefore, cultural differences should be actively considered in mental health interventions. The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of culture on group behavior and on outcomes. Specifically, the study compared self-disclosure, group interaction, and outcomes in counseling groups for Arab (Moslem and Druze) and Jewish adolescents in Israel. MULTICULTURALISM IN THE ISRAELI CONTEXT Arabs in Israel encompass several ethnic groups, among which Moslems and Druze are examined in the present study. Both groups share a basic Arab culture characterized as collectivist and authoritarian (Dwairy, 1998). Religion, tradition, and family are central components in this culture (Barakat, 1993; Dwairy, 1998; Jackson, 1997). Accordingly, social relationships are built on duty and faithfulness to family and friends rather than on self-needs. The individual is dependent on his or her family at large (Nydell, 1987), and the family's reputation depends on the individual member's behavior. The concepts of self-esteem and respect are interdependent in Arab families, which operate as close units--cohesive, loving, and warm, but at the same time suppressing personal feelings, opinions, experiences, and needs. As a result, the Arab individual typically avoids overt emotional expression (El-Rufaie & Absood, 1993). The need to conform to collective norms has led to "pleasing" as a major coping mechanism (Griefat & Katriel, 1989). Within this common Arab culture, there are cultural variations between groups, depending on their degree of acculturation (Lee, 1997). Dwairy (1998) has identified three major groups among Arabs: traditional, bicultural, and Westernized. Traditional Arab identity is the common cultural identity of Arabs in rural areas, where people live with traditional collectivist values and norms within their extended families and social life. Bicultural identity is common among middle-class, educated Arabs, but even in this category Westernization is evident, mainly in the emphasis on materialistic aspects of living rather than on their social relationships (Al-Sabaie, 1989). The Westernized group is usually composed of Arabs who immigrated to Western countries. The major difference between Moslems and Druze is the level of acculturation. Close to 1 million Moslems live in Israel, and most of them may be considered bicultural. The Druze, in contrast, numbering about 94,000 in Israel, are known as an ethnic group that is furthest removed from the mainstream lifestyle in Israel and considered to have the greatest solidarity in the Middle East. They differ from the Moslems in their religion, ethnicity, geography, and political stands. They are a minority in several Arab countries in the Middle East, including Israel, and believe that keeping up with their tradition is the basis for their survival (Dana, 1998). Therefore, they are very strict in their socialization of the young generation (Phalet & Claeys, 1993). The differences between Arab (Moslem, Druze) and Western cultures are reflected also in Arab attitudes toward counseling. Arabs tend to believe in external natural factors or supernatural factors as causes for pathology (Timimi, 1995). On the whole, only extreme cases of pathology are treated, in an attempt to avoid stigmatizing, and Arabs wait a longer time before seeking help (Dwairy, 1998; Okasha, 1993). When they do pursue counseling, they expect it to be direct, to be short-term, and to offer advice. The traditional focus on verbal exchange and insight is often experienced as intrusive. Therefore, outreach counseling and short-term, goal-oriented, systematic eclecticism is offered for counseling Arabs (Budman, Lipson, & Meleis, 1992; Dwairy, 1998). Yet, owing in part to social oppression, social change, and family transformation, Arabs tend to display high levels of psychosocial disorders (Ibrahim & Ibrahim, 1993; Okasha, 1993). …

Morals, Harmony, and National Identity: "Companionate Feminism" in Colonial Indonesia in the 1930s

Abstract: This analysis of three debates among the Indonesian (mainly Javanese) elite of the 1930s illustrates what was meant by "iboe jang sedjati", or "the true women", in a decade of striving nationalism and a more outspoken feminist movement. The debates concern a fashion show/beauty contest; concubinage; and the role of modern Indonesian women themselves. The article demonstrates that in response to ongoing processes of modernization or Westernization, Javanese gender perceptions were voiced in an Indonesian idiom of a moral character, as opposed to what was considered the immorality of Dutch colonial and Western culture. This gender idiom was infused with the idea of harmony: harmony among different Indonesian women's organizations and harmony between Indonesian women and Indonesian men. Moreover, in addition to a "maternal feminism," focused on women as child bearers and child educators, a "companionate feminism" emerged toward women supporting men. This companionate feminism betrayed traditional Javanese norms of being "halus" (refined), but it also served new political goals of Indonesian unity and Indonesian nationalism.

Why Democratization is not the same as Westernization. Democracy and its Global Roots

Abstract: This article explores the arguments that accompany the advocacy of democracy for all, with a specific focus on the limitations and links of its meaning among Western and non-Western nations, to acknowledge the existence of non-Western ideas of democracy.

Consumption, Modernity and Japanese Cultural Identity: The Limits of Americanization?

Abstract: The case of Japan suggests an intriguing alternative to the dominant conception of Americanization. With its implicit connection with a globalizing consumer culture, Americanization has become synonymous with commodification, the rationalizing and material power of modernity, and Westernization. The question is, how valid is this understanding of globalization as a project of cultural imperialism spearheaded by a Western nation state, in particular in the context of those developments that go under the rubric of postmodernity/ multiple modernities/alternative modernities which have become more visible in the post-Cold War era?

The Smile of Mona Lisa: Postcolonial Desires, Nationalist Families, and the Birth of Consumer Television in India

Abstract: This paper examines how the inception of consumer television in India during the late 1980s facilitated both market liberalization and a conservative politics of class, gender, and religio-cultural community. As reflected in the discourses and images in the English press, consumer television made room for novel figures of desire, changing forms of cultural citizenship, and new spaces of governance. Advertised through images of postcolonial whiteness that glamorized capital and technology, television also brought with it anxieties regarding westernization, consumption, and gender reform. These conflicting discourses produced the nationalist TV family as part of a new gender politics and as a new form of cultural governance that sought to forge tighter links between market, state, and conservative notions of community.

Recent foreign language education policies in Palestine

Abstract: The paper investigates the development of foreign language education policies in Palestine, at a time when the establishment of a Palestinian state has become a real option, and when, following the Oslo agreements, the Palestinians have become responsible for Palestinian education. As the New Palestinian Curriculum shows, an international orientation is clearly part of the policy, and accordingly the learning and teaching of languages are a primary concern in identity formation. Through Arabic the relations with the Arabic countries in the region can be maintained, while Hebrew and also English will serve as the medium of communication with Israel, which will remain part of the Palestinian reality. Knowledge of other foreign languages will be needed to maintain contacts with other parts of the world. For historical reasons, Palestine has been in contact with many different countries all over the world, probably more than most other Arabic-speaking countries. It remains to be seen how the current battle between Arabization and Muslim fundamentalism on the one hand, and westernization and desecularization on the other will be resolved, but, whatever the outcome, Palestine cannot allow itself to turn away from the rest of the world.

German ideologies since 1945 : studies in the political thought and culture of the Bonn Republic

Abstract: Introduction: Putting German Political Thought in Context J.W.Muller PART 1: THE TRANSFORMATION OF GERMAN POLITICAL THOUGHT IN THE POST-WAR PERIOD Restoring the German Spirit: Humanism and Guilt in Post-War Germany A.Rabinbach Normative Westernization?: The Impact of Remigres on the Formation of Political Thought in Post-War Germany A.Sollner Habermas's Reconstruction of West German Law and the Sozialstaat Controversy J.P.McCormick The Westernization of the Political Thought of the West German Labour Movement J.Angster PART 2: CRITICAL THEORY AND THE LEGACIES OF 1968 Post-War Ideologies and the Body Politics of 1968 D.Herzog 1968 as Event, Milieu and Ideology J.W.Muller PART 3: GERMAN CONSERVATISM: FROM TECHNOCRATIC CONSERVATISM TO THE NEW RIGHT From the Conservative Revolution to Technocratic Conservatism D.van Laak German Neo-Conservatism, c.1968 to 1985: Hermann Lubbe and Others J.Muller From National Identity to National Interest: The Rise (and Fall) of Germany's New Right J.W.Muller PART 4: GERMAN REPUBLICANISM AND THE POLITICS OF RECOGNITION A Tolerant Republic R.Forst The Many Faces of the Republic W.A.Barbieri

Searching for a new paradigm of church and mission in a secularized and postmodern context in korea

Abstract: 1. Introduction William Blair, a Christian missionary to Korea in the early 20th century, once remarked that gold in Korea was "not in its mountains and sandy soil, but in the hearts of the Korean people", and their "humble hearts, ready and willing to receive the Gospel." (1) Through the miraculous economic growth that has taken place since the beginning of the 1960s, which has also led to the rapid industrialization, and urbanization, of the country, Korean people have managed to overcome many of the disadvantages of poverty that had troubled them in the past. However, as the wealth of the nation has increased, new cultural and sociological phenomena, common also to wealthier Western nations, have complicated the search for faith among Korean people. These phenomena include individualism, rationalism, scientific positivism, and the technology of modernity. (2) Modernization meant to Korean people westernization so that Korean traditional cultures and religions were regarded as pre-modern and inferior to Western ones. Even though modernity with its positive side has yet to be fully adapted into Korean culture, the forces of postmodernism and globalization seem to have become increasingly attractive to Korean people since the early 1990s. On the one hand, such a rapid cultural change, or rapid mixing of different kinds of cultural values, can cause a culture to experience a crisis of identity. On the other hand, this seeming contradiction of values could contribute to a deeper and more complex understanding of human reality, and the natural world. (3) If we understand the "postmodern" as the relativization of standards, and values, then centrifugality is one of the typical tendencies in a postmodern culture. (4) According to a Chinese proverb, the new comes out of learning the old. To illustrate this, I will consider the mission of the minjung (5) church movement (MCM) in Korea. This will show how the church and missionaries experienced identity crises because of swift cultural change, and how they have begun to recognize "spirituality" and "life" as key words for the new paradigm of church and mission. From this case study we can also learn about the missiology of the minjung church (MC). Then I will try to identify the key questions related to gospel and culture for the Korean church. Finally I will highlight some emerging frontiers in the mission of the Korean church, and the major challenges facing the church in the postmodern or neoliberal and global capitalistic context. 2. Case study: the mission of the minjung church movement (6) a) Historical background (early 1980s) Christians, especially participants of the Urban Rural Mission, led the democratization movement in the 1970s. The assassination of the dictator Park Chung-hee in 1979 offered an opportunity for the democratization of the country. However, this opportunity was thwarted by general Chun Doohwan's military coup of May 1980. The quashing of the Kwangju minjung uprising on 27 May 1980 forced the leaders and intellectuals of the democratization movement, to recognize the importance of the influence of the US military in the Korean peninsula. Their solution to overcoming the powerful influence of the US military and US political hegemony on the Korean peninsula, was Marxism. Marxism had been a significant influence on the leaders of the liberation movement, under Japanese colonial oppression, during the 1930s. The revival of Marxism's influence on the thinking of leaders of the democratization movement is one of the main criteria for distinguishing between the nature of the movement in the 1970s and that of the 1980 s. During the early 1980s, several thousand university students gave up their studies to become factory labourers, in order to change the social and political system through the organizing of trades unions. b) Formational period (1983-1987) The minjung church (MC) was a grouping of Christian congregations founded in the urban industrial/urban poor areas of Korean cities. …

The Americanization/Westernization of Austria

Abstract: Political, economic, social, and cultural modernization dramatically transformed twentieth-century Austria. Innovative new methods of production and management, such as the assembly line, changed Austrian business after World War I, much as the Marshall Plan shaped the economy after World War II. At the same time, jazz, Hollywood movies, television programming, and mass commodities were as popular in Austria as elsewhere in Western Europe. Even political campaigns followed American trends. All this occurred despite the fact that in West Germany, American nostrums and models had been rejected, modifi ed, or "translated" into milder versions. Ultimately, Austria was "Western Europeanized" when it joined the European Union in 1995.

Westernization in China: A Case Study in Processed Potatoes

Abstract: Keywords: China, potatoes, westernization, food demand, convenience foods Abstract: The demand for convenience foods is growing around the world, especially in China. However, the contributing factors of this change in food preferences are still largely unknown. To measure this westernization trend, data from a survey of Chinese consumers in Beijing is evaluated using a multinomial ordered logit model to determine which consumer attributes influence the probability of consuming western foods such as French fries, mashed potatoes, and potato chips. Results show that higher income levels and positive opinions concerning western food taste have a significant influence on increased consumption of all three processed potato products. Additionally, younger ages and female gender were highly significant indicators of increased French fry and potato chip consumption.

Psychoanalysis Across Civilizations: A Personal Journey

Abstract: This journey started in 1950 at Antioch College when I wrote a required Life Aims paper to make a comparative study of East and West in philosophy, religion, art, literature, and the social sciences. In 1977 I went to India on a grant for clinical psychoanalytic research to assess the psychological effects of Westernization on Indians, to ascertain differences in configurations of the self from American patients, and to reexamine psychoanalysis. Realizing I had a tiger by the tail, I had to do just what I had envisaged and completely forgotten about in my Life Aims paper, only now to focus on psychoanalysis. I went to Japan in 1982 for an inter-Asian psychological comparison, which had never been done. Returning home necessitated two more journeys: to understand the encounter of Asian patients with the radically different American cultural/psychological world; and to explore the dialogue psychoanalysts have had with the cultural roots of psychoanalysis in modern Western individualism.

The Logic of Financial Westernization in the Middle East

Abstract: In the nineteenth century the steps taken to modernize the Middle East's financial system included the legalization of interest, the establishment of secular courts open to both actual and juristic persons, and new banking regulations based largely on Western models. Exploring why they involved the transplant of foreign institutions, this paper shows that certain elements of Islamic law blocked evolutionary paths that might have generated a modern financial system through indigenous means. These sources of rigidity included (1) the Islamic law of commercial partnerships, which limited enterprise continuity; (2) the Islamic inheritance system, which restrained capital accumulation; (3) the waqf (pious foundation) system, which inhibited the pooling of resources; and (4) the Islamic legal system's aversion to the concept of juristic personality, which limited the capabilities of private organizations. Even before the financial advances of the nineteenth century, the region's non-Muslim minorities had come to dominate key economic sectors, including finance. Non-Muslim merchants and financiers improved their relative positions because, unlike their Muslim counterparts, they could operate under the jurisdiction of Western courts.

Asia and western dominance

Abstract: This paper considers the conflicts between the West and Asia in the age of globalization and its concomitant ideology of liberal values. It concludes that while the material wealth of the West is welcome everywhere, Asia has resisted, and will continue to resist, the attempts to homogenize Asian culture. The paper argues that the West should accept differences in human rights, ecological policies and forms of governments, and limit itself to the equalization of opportunities for commerce and trade.

Local and global encounters : politics, consumption and the fueling of a grassroots boycott in Alexandria, Egypt

Abstract: This thesis explores the social and cultural dynamics of a grassroots boycott of American and Israeli goods and products that took shape in Egypt in the year 2000. The boycott is analyzed both as a consumer movement and a forum for populist political expression and participation. It was fueled by political discontent with United States' foreign policies in the Middle East in general, and Egypt in particular, and also constituted a reaction to the policies of the Israeli government in the occupied Palestinian territories and U.S. inaction towards such policies. The aim of the thesis is to develop an empirical, socio-cultural, historical, and politically informed case study of current trends in the politicization of consumption in Alexandria, Egypt. The thesis presents consumers as simultaneously constrained by the forces of modernization and the globalization of market society, and as agents who consciously appropriate and rework existing systems and conditions for their own benefit. It is commonly thought that cultural diversity is in the process of disappearing and that the homogenizing effects of globalization and westernization are inescapable. This case study shows that globalization has made significant inroads into Egyptian society creating many tensions and difficulties, yet these very difficulties have also served as the occasion for resistance to take shape, as evidenced by the Boycott.

The Westernization of the Political Thought of the West German Labor Movement

Abstract: During the 1950s, a transformation of the West German labor movement took place that indicated an approximation to Western political thought. The central argument here is that this transformation of West German labor, which became manifest in the new programs of the Social Democratic Party and the German Trade Union Federation, in the Godesberg program of 1959 and the Dusseldorf program of 1963 respectively, and which also had a profound impact on the whole of West German society, was not just evolving by itself in an entirely internal process, but rather was very strongly influenced by external factors. To put it more provocatively still, it was the result of a cultural transfer from the Anglo-Saxon Western world, involving German laborites as well as American trade unionists. There were two main contributory factors to this cultural transfer: on the one hand the experience of German socialists and unionists during their years in exile, especially of those who spent the war years in Great Britain or the United States; and, on the other, the active role played by the American trade union federations in Western Europe between 1945 and the mid-1960s.

Confrontation, Embarrassment and Reflection: Japan Meets the West

Abstract: In this paper, I try to analyze the cultural gap between Japan and the West from a comparative literary point of view. After a very long period of national seclusion, Japan was obliged to open herself to the world. The government controlled by warriors soon came to an end and a new era of the Meiji began in 1868. For most progressive people in the Meiji Era it was an urgent necessity to modernize their country and modernization was nearly equivalent to westernization. On the other side, there were men of letters who did not approve of this hasty westernizing. Okakura Tenshin suggested in The Book of Tea: “Let us stop the continents from hurling epigrams at each other, and be sadder if not wiser by the mutual gain of half a hemisphere.... You have gained expansion at the cost of restlessness; we have created a harmony which is weak against aggression. Will you believe it? −the East is better off in some respects than the West!” Nitobe Inazo, who served as under secretary general of the League of Nations for seven years, published Bushido: The Soul of Japan in 1899. He appealed that the main motive of Japan’s transformation was Bushido or the code of warriors. In Silence Endo Shusaku made a quondam missionary observe that “this country is a swamp... . Everything, if it is planted in this swamp, begins to wither from its roots.” Endo once declared, “I grieve that there is no drama where there is no God. My dream as a writer is to make this grief compete against European novels that describe man’s conflict with God.” It is doubtless that Bushido is no longer the soul of Japan. Besides, foreign ideas have not filtered into Japanese people’s hearts. They are inclined to run after unfruitful pleasures without deep emotion. Japan should earnestly wonder what to do with her heritage and how to communicate with the West.

Genesis of Turkish Nationalism

Abstract: In this research, conditions for the emergence of the Turkish nationalism and chief intellectuals who formulated the Turkish nationalism are comprehensively scrutinized. Turkish nationalist thought developed as a part of modernization and Westernization ideologies, then, it became an independent political ideology. Turkish nationalism was the last link of the Ottoman Empire's reconstruction and Westernization movement chains. Namik Kemal was the chief intellectual, who affected almost the entire variety of intellectuals in the Empire. He was the Hegel of the Turks. Ziya Gokalp, who was deeply influenced by Namik Kemal, was the first intellectual to see Turkist ideology as a political thought. He tried to organize and formulate the pillars of the Turkish nationalism. Although, cultural nationalism began earlier, political nationalism, among the Turks, gained popularity, especially during and after the Balkans Wars.

National Allegiance, Corporate Loyalty and Religious Complexity

Abstract: How corporations and individuals are influenced by nationality, culture, collaboration and transnational business processes is the subject of this chapter, which seeks to examine the need for individuals to assess their value proposition to an organization. As the world enters into a cultural melee between product/lifestyle homogeneity and social/cultural heterogeneity, one issue is clear: as individuals experience more homogeneous products and experiences, the greater the need to feel connected to something. World travellers are beginning to see the influence of the same products and groups of brands at every airport, changing the travel experience within airports from a previously enjoyable experience of different cultures into continuous shopping for western products, only interrupted by the destination. Synconomy is not about the westernization of global commerce; as said above, corporations operating in a synergistic economy work best when they leverage cultural diversity and bring the greatest range of products to the largest groups of people at the lowest possible cost. To accomplish this, individuals must endeavour to do two things simultaneously: 1. they must learn a set of specialized skills, such as communications, international relations, distance leadership and a deeper understanding of cultures; 2. they must unlearn preconceived notions and cultural stereotypes in order to embrace diversity and blend social differences into the value proposition of the firm.