Showing papers on "Westernization published in 2012"

Causes and Consequences of Rapid Erosion of Cultural Values in a Traditional African Society

Abstract: The culture of a people is their identity as it affords them due recognition. This paper therefore is aimed at examining the causes and consequences of rapid erosion of cultural values in nigeria. Social change theory was used in this paper. This study was carried out in ado-odo/ota lga, with a sample size of 203. Simple statistics like frequency distribution, percentile were used. Chi-square statistics was used in testing the hypotheses. The study found out that there is a positive relationship between social forces such as colonialism, westernization and erosion of cultural values. Also, it was found that there is a positive relationship between the local family structure and the foreign culture. The study concludes that forceful imposition of foreign culture should be discouraged.

Globalization and Counseling: Professional Issues for Counselors

Abstract: Scholars have examined globalization for many years in terms of its impact on individuals, but it remains a concept not often discussed in the counseling literature (Paredes et al., 2008). As counseling transforms from a Western-based practice to a global phenomenon, it is important to understand counseling within an international context. In this article, the ways in which the process of globalization are currently impacting the field of counseling, implications and future research directions are examined.As our world becomes increasingly connected economically, politically, technologically, and culturally, counseling is transforming from a Western-based practice to a global phenomenon. The globalization of counseling has placed the field on the cusp of growth and innovation. Such changes involve not only a willingness to adapt and perhaps redefine current counseling theories, but to hold our most basic assumptions regarding the nature of human change so loosely that we are willing to let counseling develop and evolve indigenously in international communities. Accordingly, this article highlights the impact of globalization on the field of counseling, with particular attention given to the spread of Westernbased counseling practices to the international community. In order to do so, we begin by defining globalization and considering the progression of multicultural counseling towards a more global vision. We then examine the ways in which the process of globalization is currently impacting the field of counseling. Lastly, the implications for counseling as an increasingly global phenomenon and future research directions are considered.GlobalizationGlobalization can be referred to the "McDondaldization" or "Westernization" of the world. These terms imply that globalism entails an invasion of Western capitalism into undeveloped nations and suggests the idea that the world is becoming homogeneous. Modern scholars of globalization (Featherstone, 1996; Tomlinson, 1999), however, point out that such oversimplifications only describe one aspect of globalism, and note that globalization is better defined by a series of interactions between nations than by a unidirectional Western conquest. Accordingly, we define globalization in this article as a continual process of interaction and integration among national economies, societies and cultures (Rothenberg, 2003).There is a dynamic interplay between both global and local economies, politics, technologies and cultures in which local communities do not passively give way to outside influences, but rather actively react to the process by absorbing, assimilating, and/or resisting the worldviews, products and politics introduced by the West (Featherstone, 1996). This global-local relationship transforms the local lived experiences of the individuals and has increasing global consequences (Tomlinson, 1999).Scholars in the counseling field have already increased their understanding of the process by which individuals in minority groups adapt to dominate cultural norms. Traditionally, it was assumed that acculturation was a one-dimensional process in which individuals demonstrated increasing adherence to the dominate culture and a lessening of adherence to the minority orientation. More recently, scholars understand this process to be multidimensional, involving both acculturation and enculturation (Kim & Abreu, 2001).Similar to modern theories of globalization, counselors are increasingly aware of the dynamic interplay that exists between dominant and individual culture. In this manner, as the counseling profession is introduced and developed in international communities, not only will local communities and individuals living in those communities be transformed, but the practice of traditional, Western counseling may be fundamentally redefined as locals actively react and adapt to the practice. Individual views and experiences of globalization are contingent upon social location and personal experiences (Featherstone 1996; Tomlinson, 1999). …

Negotiating social change: Ugandan discourses on westernisation and neo-colonialism as forms of social critique

Abstract: A common claim, in public discourses and in post-colonial theory, is that colonialism, and more recently the aid industry and the media, have created global hegemonic norms, which have been enforced on non-Western societies While this may be true in some respects, this article takes a different stance on the debate It scrutinises perceptions of Western-influenced social change in Uganda, and differentiates between discourses on Westernisation and discourses on neo-colonialism Both are analysed as forms of social critique – one internally and the other externally oriented The largely elitist discourse on neo-colonialism is explicitly critical of the West and its interventions in Uganda But it is not representative of the more ambiguous perceptions of Westernisation among ‘ordinary’ people, who use references to the West to comment on contemporary Ugandan society The article is based on empirical research in Northern Uganda It focuses on discourses on gender, kinship and sexuality, and the recent debate on homosexuality

‘To Raise the Savage to a Higher Level’: The Westernization of Nagas and their Culture

Abstract: Westernization is a pervasive modern phenomenon. Its impact is more pervasive and pernicious than many people are aware and/or willing to admit. The spread of the dominant Western culture has caused a gradual demise of many peripheral cultures. The incursion of Western agents into Naga soil, beginning with British military conquest and American missionary intrusion, has resulted in a significant influence and westernization of Nagas and their culture and worldview. Consequently, it is almost a cliche to assert that since colonial contact the long-evolved Naga traditional values are being replaced by Western values. Today, the literal colonization of Nagas by the imperial West has ended, but the process of westernization is continuing, thanks to the ongoing influence being exerted by modern media, technology and other trends of globalization. My objective in this paper is not to highlight the ‘form’ or ‘material’ aspect of the culture, such as clothing (although mimicry in this area is almost faultless among a large section of Nagas), rather, my goal is to discuss the current state of mindset and fundamental cultural structures of the Nagas that have resulted from the adjustments in the lives and minds of the people because of the imposition of westernization. In fact, it is more than merely a process of adjustment consequent upon conquest, it is an extensive overhauling of cultural institutions, values and practices. I will underscore the westernization of some basic social structures and the mindset of the people.

Modernization or Westernization: The Muslim World vs. the Rest

Abstract: The 20th century has been a time of rapid transformation, a continuation of a process begun in the West with the Scientific Revolution, Industrial Revolution, Religious Revolution, and Political Revolution. Other once-powerful empires, such as China, India, Ottoman Turkey, and Safavid Persia, had fallen into decline, while the West burgeoned. By the dawn of the 20th century, the states in decline all became aware of their condition and the danger it posed to them. All have experimented with various aspects of modernization: modernizing monarchies, dictatorships, Marxism, and Fascism. Some have modernized without democracy - such as China and Singapore. The majority of Muslim states, however, have not succeeded even in economic development, which their Asian counterparts have. At this time, without the cushion of an oil economy, these Muslim societies appear headed for dysfunctional, if not failed states. The direst of these is Yemen, which is not only chaotic and dysfunctional but is also facing a population explosion accompanied by severe lack of water. In this paper, I propose to explore the avenues selected by modernizing countries and explore why some have been successful while other choices have failed to bring these societies into the world system. Westernization (the world system) cannot happen without modernization preceding it. Defining the Terms Modernization has been a global process that we can observe in most of the major cities of the world, regardless of culture. Samuel Huntington says: "Modernization involves industrialization, urbanization, increasing levels of literacy, education, wealth, and social mobilization, and more complex and diversified occupational structures. These common elements may be present, even though the institutions that created them are not. Modernization can be borrowed or bought." But to create and sustain it, one must look to Westernization, "which created the tremendous expansion of scientific and engineering knowledge beginning in the eighteenth century that made it possible for humans to control and shape their environment in totally unprecedented ways." [Huntington, p. 68] Most Muslim-majority countries have automobiles, skyscrapers, television, airlines, and young people dressed in blue jeans, bopping to the latest hip-hop or other commercial Western music. But while listening to Western pop music on their earphones, they may also be listening to a fiery Jihadi sermon that will persuade them to volunteer as a suicide bomber. They are modern, but not Western. Furthermore, what one sees in the big cities may not be what we would find in the countryside or in the millions of villages in what we still call "the lesser developed world." They are neither modern nor Western. A perfect example of this situation, of course, is Afghanistan, a model of unending misery. Kabul and Herat are seemingly modern cities, but the rest of Afghanistan is trapped in the very feudal dark ages. Westernization is an entire complex of practices and values that have shaped the West over the 2,500 years from ancient Athens to today. These practices cannot be replicated overnight. Modernization may be seen as a civilization that emerged because of Westernization; however, a country may be modernized without being Westernized. Toby E. Huff notes that the Scientific Revolution did not take root in any of the other great civilizations of the 17th century (Ottoman, Moghul, Persian, or Chinese). This revolution was exclusively the product of our Classical legacy, Roman law, Latin language, and Christianity (church law and a system of contracts). [Huff, p. 3] Huntington adds the importance of rule of law, law that also constrains the exercise of arbitrary power of rulers. Social pluralism is also the product of Europe's particular geography, which has always provided for rival power centers, unlike the great empires of Asia. Representative bodies (parliaments), individualism and a certain restlessness and curiosity distinguishes the descendants of the Indo-European peoples, [see Jared Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel; Ricardo Duchesne The Uniqueness of Western Civilization; and the work of a geographer, Barry Cunliffe, Europe Between the Oceans, 9000 BC-AD WOO. …

The Balkan Revolutionary Age

Abstract: Although Ottoman rule was avowedly Islamic in ideology from its very inception, historians have tended to discount the importance of the religion for both state and population during the nineteenth century. Historical accounts of the era dwell upon plans to modernize the empire, which are often equated with an aspiration to westernize, and thus to secularize. Such narratives treat matters of faith that contradict the secularization theme as tainted subjects unworthy of serious study.1 Ottoman invocations of religion are frequently dismissed as ‘reactionary’ and ‘conservative’ (and therefore petty-minded), or as socially acceptable formulae that disguised other interests. Yet assumptions that Islam denoted ignorance or was little more than a tool for political posturing obscure the nature of reform by misconstruing the conflicting pressures driving change. From top to bottom of Muslim society, religion was not only a matter of belief but also vital to personal identity and sense of social order, and Muslims acted when they perceived threats to Islam’s well-being. This article, therefore, challenges the concept of a ‘taint’ that has precluded consideration of religion in the nineteenth-century Ottoman empire, by means of a reinterpretation of the domestic context of reform. It focuses primarily upon the last decade in the reign of Sultan Mahmud II (1808–39), the ruler heretofore credited with committing the empire to modernization, westernization and secularization. After disastrous losses in wars with European powers, especially Russia, Mahmud and his advisers embarked upon a plan to centralize authority in Istanbul, but their motivation was less emulation of Europe than strengthening the state’s defence of the Abode of Islam (Dar al-Islam) against Christian enemies. Their forceful imposition of change on the population, in turn, drove many to take up arms against the state in order to defend what they perceived to be most at risk: the ethos...

From production to consumption : transformation of rural communities

Abstract: Up to a few decades ago, the anthropology of tourism was regarded as a way to become involved in effortless research in pleasant settings Moreover, tourism was portrayed as a sinister carrier of Westernization, thus as a menace to the subaltern societies that had to endure it Nowadays, anthropological studies on tourism have established their own legitimacy due to the considerable socioeconomic significance of tourism in this age of hectic global mobility This book points to new and important research perspectives showing the impact of tourism on the rural world The articles presented in this collection are a major and groundbreaking contribution to the analysis of the new rurality in global society (Series: Freiburger Sozialanthropologische Studien/Freiburg Studies in Social Anthropology - Vol 35)

Westernisation, ideology and national identity in 20th-century Chinese music

Abstract: ........................................................................................................................ III ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................... IV TABLE OF CONTENTS ........................................................................................................ VI LIST OF MUSICAL EXAMPLES ........................................................................................... VII LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... IX CD TRACK LIST ................................................................................................................... X INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 1 CHAPTER 1 THE BACKDROP: HISTORY, POLITICS AND PREVIOUS RESEARCH ................ 6 1.1 The Location of Chinese Modern Music in History and Politics ............................... 7 1.2 Review of Previous Research on Chinese Modern Music ...................................... 33 1.3 About This Thesis: Methodology, Choice of Materials and Structure ................... 45 CHAPTER 2 SCHOOL SONGS AND THE SPREAD OF WESTERN ART MUSIC IN EARLY 20 CENTURY CHINA ..................................................................................................... 49 2.1 The Japanese Model............................................................................................... 54 2.2 Western Art Music versus Chinese Music in Early 20 Century Chinese Music Criticism .................................................................................................................. 60 2.3 The Spread of Western Art Music in China: Theory Teaching and School Songs ... 65 2.4 Conclusions: Towards a Comprehensive Understanding of the “School Songs Movement” ............................................................................................................ 81 CHAPTER 3 MUSIC COMPOSITION, PERFORMANCE AND POLITICAL IDEOLOGY, 1930S 1940S ...................................................................................................................... 88 3.1 A Period of Transition: From Enlightenment to Revolution and the War of National Defense ................................................................................................................... 88 3.2 A Role Model – Xian Xinghai: His Life, Creativity and Reception ........................... 97 3.3 Situating Yan’an: A Close Reading of Mao Zedong’s Political Writings and His Blueprint for a Proletarian State Culture in the 1940s ......................................... 124 3.4 Music Advocacy and Practices in Yan’an: the Retrieval and Reconstruction of Traditions .............................................................................................................. 133 3.5 Legacy and Aftermath .......................................................................................... 151 CHAPTER 4 SYMPHONIC CREATIONS: MUSIC AFTER 1980 ........................................ 162 4.1 Western Art Music and the New Era .................................................................... 162 4.2 “The Second Tide of Modernisation”: the New Social and Political Context for Chinese Music Creations ...................................................................................... 164 4.3 A Bird’s-Eye View of Chinese Symphonic Creations after 1980 ........................... 180 4.4 A Case Study: Yang Qing’s Wilderness for Dizi and Orchestra ............................. 190 4.5 Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 207 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS OF THE THESIS ............................................................ 210 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................... 216

Westernization and Women’s Rights: Non-Western European Responses to Mill’s Subjection of Women, 1869-1908

Abstract: The publication in 1869 of Mill’s Subjection of Women gave rise to philosophical and political responses beyond Western Europe on the relationship between Westernization and women’s rights in developing, colonial, and post-colonial countries. Through the first comparative study of the Subjection of Women alongside the forewords to six of its earliest non–Western European editions, we explore how this book provoked local intellectuals in Russia, Chile, and India to engage its liberal utilitarian, imperial, Orientalist, and feminist ideas. By showing how Mill’s Western European biases and instrumental reasoning establish problematic rhetorical models for women’s rights arguments, we are able to explore the ethical dimensions of women’s rights issues in the context of cultural and political imperialism. Most importantly, this reception history illustrates how cross-cultural and culturally sensitive dialogue on women’s rights can push us beyond Western bias and imperialism in advocating for the end of women’s...

A Pragmatic Tradition: The Past in Ghanaian Education

Abstract: This paper assesses how recently published Ghanaian social studies textbooks portray Ghana’s history and traditions. Unlike many histories written for adults, which urge Ghanaians to overcome the legacy of colonialism by cultivating ancient traditions, the textbooks often criticize indigenous practices and praise colonialism’s consequences. They judge tradition or culture to be useful, inasmuch as they contribute to unity and development, but although this pragmatic approach to education and historical interpretation seems dismissive of Ghanaian tradition, it is in fact deeply rooted in Ghana’s past. Ghana is rich in history and tradition. One of West Africa’s most powerful empires, Asante, expanded to control roughly the extent of the nation’s modern-day boundaries and fought off the British for generations. Africa’s “Black Star” became one of its first colonies to achieve independence, in 1957. Led by one of the continent’s most celebrated patriots and PanAfricanists, Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, the young nation inspired and attracted black nationalists across the world. Some of the nation’s intellectuals, however, have worried that the old ways are being forgotten in the rush toward Westernization and modernity. Ghana’s most distinguished novelist, Ayi Kwei Armah, has been perhaps the most eloquent advocate of precolonial tradition. His first two novels— The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born (1968) and Fragments (1970)—are ruthlessly realistic portrayals of young, idealistic protagonists mired in corruption, cynicism, and materialism. In Two Thousand Seasons, by way of contrast, Armah finds in the past both perfect evil (white Arabs and Europeans) and perfect good (traditional black Africa), which he identifies as “the way” and “our way”: “Our way is reciprocity. The way is wholeness. Our way knows no oppression. The way destroys oppression” ([1973] 2000:76). Wright argues that this racial or moral dichotomy is calculated, that Armah is engaged in “a therapeutic exorcism” calculated “to cure an errant Africa of its diseased distrust in its own indigenous forms and values, not to reproduce the exact historical origins and developments of those forms and

Facing the change and meeting the challenge: mathematics curriculum of Tongwen Guan in China in the second half of the nineteenth century

Abstract: It is commonly recognized that the second wave of transmission of Western science and mathematics into China took place in the second half of the nineteenth century, thereby starting a process of modernization which has become synonymous with “westernization” of the country. In this context mathematics education in China also went through a process of modernization. During this period of great change reformers faced serious challenge and went through a “mental struggle”. This paper discusses this challenge and mental struggle by taking a close look at the controversy over the establishment of Tianwen Suanxue Guan (School of Astronomy and Mathematics) in Tongwen Guan (School of Combined Learning), one of the schools of Western learning at the time. The attempt to integrate Western mathematics with Chinese traditional mathematics is also discussed through the study of some questions sampled from examinations and students’ homework assignments of this school.

Nación, estado y cultura: por una historia política y social de la homogeneización cultural

Abstract: Expanding on the concept of «nationalization of the masses», the article explores the processes of cultural homogenization as a recurrent pattern in the formation and expansion of the European «nation state» until after World War II. It argues that such practices could not be systematically conceived before the French Revolution and the ensuing wars. In fact, large-scale homogenization was hardly practicable before the Twentieth century, mostly due to the lesser bureaucratic control and the lack of adequate military technology. With Paris as its global epicentre, the process radially spread eastward through waves of progressive Westernization. While identifying nationalism as the dominant identity of the modern era, the article illustrates with a wealth of examples its recurrent overlaps with patterns of cultural homogenization, once nationalism is seized by the state. We maintain that the three intertwined conditions, cultural homogenization, genocide and nationalism, reached their peak during the two world wars and under the totalitarian rule built upon attempts to prolong the patterns of mass mobilization induced by war. In synthesis, the article affirms the need to engage in a social and political history of cultural homogenization as a sweeping and far-reaching set of events which profoundly affected almost every aspect of modern societies.

Appropriating Confucianism: Soft Power, Primordial Sentiment, and Authoritarianism

Abstract: The centennial celebrations of the Republican Revolution led by Sun Yat-Sen in October 1911 provided a moment of reflection on modern China (China Information, 2011: 213–282). Over the last century, China transformed itself from a dynastic empire threatened by Western imperialism into a rising power. It recently overtook Japan to become the second largest economy in terms of gross domestic production (GDP) and it is believed that it will surpass the United States in a decade. Not all aspirations envisioned by Sun Yat-Sen, however, have been fulfilled. For instance, Mainland Chinese have yet to gain full citizenship rights under Communist rule. Far more concerned with stability and control, the Communist Party is reluctant to liberalize the political system. In addition, the complicated relationship between tradition and modernity is still an issue of discussion among policymakers and intellectuals. In the late nineteenth century, the ti-yong (essence-utilization) debate prompted government officials to embrace modernization by preserving Chinese learning as the essence (zhongxue weiti) and appropriating Western learning for application (xixue weiyong). This debate resurfaces in a paradigmatic shift from a strong belief in Westernization during the 1980s to the adherence to Confucianism in the early twenty-first century.

Age Stereotypes of Older Primary Teachers in Taiwan.

Abstract: Elder respect in East Asia has a long history that could be derived from Confucian philosophy. However, with the rapid development of westernization, younger people have gradually depreciated the value of elder respect and seek a reciprocal relationship with the elderly. A literature search revealed that age stereotypes would be both negative and positive. This study employs the qualitative approach, mainly through interviews, to collect college students' attitudes towards older primary teachers. The research findings illustrate three characteristics: (a) the value of elder respect from college students seems to have gradually declined, particularly under the impact of westernization and industrialization, although some students did still believe in elder respect influenced by Confucian philosophy; (b) some students' negative stereotypes of older primary teachers include that older primary teachers are resistant to change, unwilling to accept new ideas, and less motivated to learn; (c) some students' posi...

Cultural Globalization in Anne Tyler’s Digging to America

Abstract: At the turn of the twenty-first century, globalization becomes one of the most contested topics in literature. It not only brings about independence and integration of economic process but also makes a tremendous impact on the literary and cultural fields around the world. It helps in spreading the Western culture and beliefs. Moreover, it is specially linked to the rise of the American influence and Western hegemony. Emanating from Europe and the West, it is a theory of ‘Westernization’ replicating all the problems associated with ‘Eurocentrism’. The aim of this research paper is to explore the concept of cultural globalization in Anne Tyler’s Digging to America (2006). This paper stresses that if there is ever to be a global society, its basis is likely to be on Western socio-political culture which can lead to a backlash of non-Western cultures. This paper provides an overview of globalization and then gives a cogent anti-imperialist analysis of the phenomenon. Within the frame of globalization, it pursues a close reading of the novel which deals with two families meeting at the airport for the first time. Each of them anticipates the arrival of an adopted infant daughter from Korea. Over the years, the American family, The Donaldsons, and the Iranian-American, The Yazdans, become more entwined. As a result, cultures clash, values are challenged and the American way is seen from different perspectives. The novel also examines family ties, cultural identity, hybridity and the universal struggle towards the American Dream.

The Material Life of the Ottoman Middle Class

Abstract: Recent scholarship on the Ottoman Empire and Egypt pays close attention to the relationship between changing material culture and modernity in the late 19th and early 20th century. This has led to a better understanding of how, for a nascent middle class, objects and commodities served to define both its relationship to modernity as well as its social position. Nevertheless, conceptualizing changing aspects of material life does not go beyond the use of objects to represent and signal socioeconomic positions at the desires and whims of their users. Accordingly, objects have only served to reaffirm scholarly claims about the fragmentation and Westernization of the Ottoman middle class. Using conceptual perspectives on material culture and specific examples from the Levant, particularly Beirut, this article investigates how material culture can further push the understanding of the rise of the middle class by shedding light on anxieties shared across the religious divide and by demystifying the concept of ‘Westernization’.

The Muslim Sisters and the January 25th Revolution

Abstract: As the world watched in anticipation and trepidation the powerful force that was the January 25 revolution, one vital question stuck in everyone's mind: how large was the influence of the Muslim Brotherhood in the events that took place during those 18 days prior to the stepping down of Mubarak? More importantly, with the newfound sense of freedom and democracy that has overtaken Egypt's streets, how will the future of the Muslim Sisters be impacted? This paper will focus on the activities spearheaded by the Muslim Sisters during the revolution and the months leading up to the People's and Legislative Assembly, and will assess their political standing within the Society of Muslim Brothers and within its newly formed political party: the Freedom and Justice Party. A review of the commentaries and reactions to the activities that took place by the Sisters during and after the revolution will be assessed. These sources will also clarify the picture of what characterises Egypt's political playing field today: post-January 25 revolution and the influx of newly formed political parties onto Egypt's political field. This paper will conclude with a 'Predictions' portion of the analysis of the Muslim Brotherhood's political future, in light of the upcoming elections and the endless opportunities it holds for the well-organized movement that is the Muslim Brotherhood. Introduction The year 2011 witnessed the breath-taking Arab Spring where a chain reaction of social movements and people uprisings swept the region, and began to shape and define the new Middle East. A year later, the Middle East has transformed into the focal point for the submerged Islamist factions and organizations to burst out of their hiding place, and to democratically compete for their place in Arab society and government. With the dominant Islamist trend, came a series of burning questions and concerns, in the event that some of these countries will function now with a more Islamist agenda than ever seen before. In the case of Egypt, two of the main issues circled around Coptic rights and women's rights. To better understand what the Islamists' intentions are towards women's rights; one must analyse the treatment of women within their organizations, parties and social movements. With the Muslim Brotherhood (MB) winning 43.4% of the peoples assembly seats (The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace 2012), they have the biggest representation of the Islamist wave in the government, and they are known to have a large female contingency within the 84-year old organization (Abdel-Latif 2009b). This study will shed light on the Muslim Sister's activities both on a social level (1) and on a political level, to give a clearer picture of their treatment of women and their view of women's standing and place within an Islamic framework. The Muslim Sisters: A Brief Introduction The majority of states in the Middle East have witnessed an impressive array of political enlightenment and turmoil during its modern history. Like most great movements in world history, feminism and Islamism were borne as a response to insufferable authority. In this case, both forces took to Egyptian streets in defiance of British occupation and lingering colonial sentiments in the early 1900s. A schoolteacher by the name of Hasan al-Banna formed the society of Muslim Brothers in 1928. The Brotherhood grew into a formidable organization in little time, as a response to the westernization and deterioration of the Egyptian society, as al-Banna viewed it. AL-Banna believed that a return to the true and pure principles of Islam would save Egypt as a whole from permanently falling into the snares of British influence and rule. During the formative years of the MB, al-Banna supported Egyptian women and young girls by creating a school in Ismailiya to teach girls-"future mothers"-about their religion (Baron 2005, 209). In 1932, his "Institute for Mothers of the Believers" developed into the first branch of the Muslim Sisters (al-Akhwat al-Muslimat), which were mostly the female relatives and wives of the Muslim Brothers. …

The Bungalow in Twentieth-Century India : The Cultural Expression of Changing Ways of Life and Aspirations in the Domestic Architecture of Colonial and Post-colonial Society

Abstract: The primary era of this study - the twentieth century - symbolizes the peak of the colonial rule and its total decline, as well as the rise of the new nation state of India. The processes that have been labeled 'westernization' and 'modernization' radically changed middle-class Indian life during the century. This book describes and explains the various technological, political and social developments that shaped one building type - the bungalow - contemporaneous to the development of modern Indian history during the period of British rule and its subsequent aftermath. Drawing on their own physical and photographic documentation, and building on previous work by Anthony King and the Desais, the authors show the evolution of the bungalow's architecture from a one storey building with a verandah to the assortment of house-forms and their regional variants that are derived from the bungalow. Moreover, the study correlates changes in society with architectural consequences in the plans and aesthetics of the bungalow. It also examines more generally what it meant to be modern in Indian society as the twentieth century evolved.

Romanian Constitutionalism: Form without Content?

Abstract: century to criticize superficial experiences with modernization in the form of Westernization seems to be once again a realistic description of Romanian – in this case constitutional – reality. The theory indicates a large gap between ‘legal Romania’ and ‘real Romania’, and thus a distance between imported or transplanted constitutional/legal institutions and wider society and its forms of interaction.

A Transformed Turkey: What is the Role for Ankara as a Regional Power?

Abstract: Over the course of a decade, Turkey has transformed itself from a status quo-oriented, peripheral member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to an emerging power with an ambition to shape regional power dynamics. This transformation was accomplished in two phases. In the first phase, backed by its impressive economic performance, Turkey emerged as an influential regional actor, prioritizing its soft power. The second, ongoing phase was prompted by the Arab Spring and Turkey’s need to respond to these changes. This paper examines the drivers of both transformation phases and evaluates the consequences for Turkey’s relations with its neighbors. The First Big Change: A Quest for Strategic Autonomy 1 Since the founding of the Turkish Republic in 1923, Ankara’s foreign policy has had one overriding objective: to assist with the country’s transformation into a modern nation state. The founding fathers of modern Turkey wanted to make a clear break with the country’s Ottoman past. Therefore, imperialist policies were replaced by policies that contributed to the modernization of Turkey, and the Westernization of Turkish society. A consequence of this national objective, however, was the loss of Turkey’s strategic autonomy. The Cold War dictated Turkey’s strategic dependence on the United States, which acted as a global security provider. With its eastern frontier bordering the Soviet Union, Turkey sought to ensure its security by joining NATO. Membership in the alliance affected Turkey’s foreign policies and limited its policy space. As a NATO member, Turkey found it difficult to diversify its relations with many of its neighbors that were part of the Warsaw Pact or members of the Non-Aligned Movement. After 1960, the drive for Turkey’s membership in the European Union (EU) generated a similar dynamic. While the EU membership process helped Turkey to vastly improve its democratic deficit, it also enhanced Brussels’ leverage over Turkish policy. As a result, Turkey was constrained by the need to align itself with the Western consensus. Turkey’s ruling elites accepted the trade-off between security and autonomy as the cost of Turkey’s Westernization.

Limits of the Imaginable in the Early Turkish Novel: Non-Muslim Prostitutes and Their Ottoman Muslim Clients

Abstract: In the first Ottoman Turkish novels written during the late nineteenth century, the development of romance between a man and a woman was restricted by certain rules that migrated into fiction from the social sphere. Since unrelated Muslim women and men were hindered from cultivating a romance by various social rules, the problem of representing romance was solved by bringing together an Ottoman Muslim man and a nonMuslim Ottoman woman from the ethnic and religious minority groups in the Ottoman Empire, such as women from Greek, Armenian, or Jewish minorities or from European communities. Therefore, the space of the novel becomes a forum for the ethnic and religious anxieties of the time. Early Turkish novels, in this sense, imaginatively embody the unspoken boundaries between different ethnic and religious groups, allowing the reader to visualize, allegorically, the complicated relationship between the Ottoman Muslim and non-Muslim minorities in the nineteenth century. In these novels, while wives and cariyes (domestic female slaves) in Muslim households represent a sanctioned, domesticated form of sexual conduct, prostitutes and courtesans inhabit a danger zone that is associated with pollution, contamination, and disease. This bifurcated sexual code, when thought of within the complexity of late Ottoman history and culture, presents a cultural metaphor—the threat of sexual contact with prostitutes—through which to read the era’s ethnic vulnerabilities and sensibilities. A critique of Westernization is mixed with the critique of non-Muslim values and traditions, ultimately producing an exaltation of Ottoman Muslim identity and its value system. Drawing on the early Ottoman Turkish novels written by elite men, but especially focusing on Ahmed Mithat Efendi’s novel, Henuz On Yedi

Two Concepts of "Civilization"

Abstract: Civilization Has Two Definitions. The word "civilization" has two basic meanings rather than one. There has been much discussion recently about civilizational conflicts and fusion. But to talk about such fusions, we must keep in mind that the word "civilization" has two basic meanings: first, civilization cultural type or a way of life, and second, civilization as a historicocultural entity or a congeries of peoples sharing and practicing that particular set of values or way of life. The differences between the two concepts are not self-evident. Yet this is so because they are often enmeshed. Their relationship is not "either/or" because there is no clear demarcation line between them. If we talk about different cultural types or ways of life, civilization in this sense means the basic values and related cultural practices, historical memories, and the geographic configurations people share with one another. Yet this kind of unity doesn't necessarily mean political unity or a shared political stance and commitment. For instance, although historically Muslims and Westerners had certain aspects of their religions and cultures in common, politically the Islamic world and the West have always been divided and generally hostile. And both civilizations have suffered from internal warfare, as well. Today, the European countries that comprise the European Union are trying to constitute a unified entity, striving toward a super-sovereign state, a United States of Europe, very much like America or China. But this is a massive job and predictably will take generations to accomplish. In 2007 and 2008, the draft of a European constitution was vetoed in referenda in Holland and France, referenda attempting to affirm a common constitution. Even though the European Union is expected to emerge eventually as something like a super-sovereign state, there is still a long way to go before the European states can finally attain the goal of political unification and become a sort of "United States of Europe." Civilization in the sense of cultural type is defined by a common mode of thinking or system of beliefs. Usually it includes not only a particular set of beliefs but also various cultural practices, despite populations speaking various languages or dialects. In most cases, civilization in this sense also shares a common geographic space, with Islam, perhaps, as an exception (as it is scattered over huge expanses of land on two continents). This lack of geographic continuity may be one factor in Islam's failure to modernize, along with the other cultural factors discussed in "Modernization or Westernization: the Muslim World vs. the Rest," authored by Laina Farhat-Holzman in this issue. There are many East and West African countries that have adopted Islam in one way or another. There are North African countries that are mainly Islamic. There are some Islamic countries in Southeast Asia, too. There are many ethnic groups who believe in Islam in China. So it seems that Islam is a very much a scattered religious, social, and political phenomenon that does not have very clear boundaries. It has to be noted, too, that civilization in the sense of cultural type is a long-term dynamic structure. It is a particular spatio-temporal continuum that has existed for thousands of years. Diffusion of Cultures Almost without exception, civilization in the sense of cultural type or way of life can be separated from that of a particular historico-cultural entity or aggregate of peoples who share a common way of life and a common geographic locus. Because these two aspects of it can be discussed separately, the values of a particular congeries of peoples called "a civilization" can diffuse among other peoples in the world. Chinese civilization, for example, was centered on "Zhong yuan" or Northern China. Soon it spread to other parts of China. After the Qin unified China, it even expanded to Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. …

Ogawa Mimei's Children's Stories: A Case Study of the Rise of Childhood in the Context of Westernization and Japanese Modernization

Abstract: In this thesis, I examine the influences of westernization, the tension between Japanese modernity and tradition, and the stories of Hans Christian Andersen on Ogawa Mimei’s children’s stories. I begin the body of my thesis with a brief historical background of Japan, beginning with the start of the Meiji period in 1868. Within the historical section, I focus on societal and cultural elements and changes that pertain to my thesis. I also include the introduction of Hans Christian Andersen in Japan. I wrap up the historical section by a description of Ogawa’s involvement in the Japanese proletarian literature movement and the rise of the Japanese proletarian children’s literature movement. Then, I launch into an analysis of Ogawa’s works categorized by thematic elements. These elements include westernization, class conflict, nature and civilization, religion and morals, and children and childhood. When relevant, I also compare and contrast Ogawa’s stories with Andersen’s. In the westernization section, I show how some of Ogawa’s stories demonstrate contact between Japan and the West. In the Class Conflict section, I discuss how Ogawa views class through a socialist lens, whereas Andersen does not dispute class distinctions, but encourages his readers to attempt an upward social climb. In the nature and civilization section, I show how Ogawa and Andersen share common opinions on the impact of civilization on nature. In the religion and morals section, I show how Ogawa incorporates religion, including Christianity, into

Orhan Pamuk on the Turkish Modernization Project: Is It a Farewell to the West?

Abstract: The mainstay of the Turkish modernization project in the twentieth century has been relegating religion to the private sphere. To this end, traditions associated with Islamic civilization were banned from Turkish public life: women gained a degree of public presence and the semblance of equality; Western style clothing became the only acceptable mode in public life; traditional laws with religious character gave way to modern legal codes; and, above all, the Arabic script was replaced by its European counterpart. With all due respect to modern Turkey's founder Kemal Ataturk, especially his vision for a new Turkey and statesmanlike tact in laying its grounds, the political and intellectual climate of the 1920s was more suitable for carrying out such a radical program of cultural change than that of our time. The reigning intellectual climate in Turkey and the West has changed drastically since then. The success of postmodernist critiques of reason and Enlightenment in the West gradually undercut the intellectual supports of secularization in Turkey, and the westernized Turkish intelligentsia came to be divided within itself. (1) The Nobel Prize laureate Orhan Pamuk (2006 literature) has been skeptical of Turkey's state-led modernization project from early in his career. At its current and most mature state of evolution, his perspective seems to be in tune with that of contemporary critics of the Enlightenment in the West who claim that there is not a binary opposition between modernity and religion. (2) This aspect of Pamuk's art drew international academic attention after the publication of Snow, his self-avowed first and last political novel. (3) Leonard Stone interprets Pamuk's artistic views on the rise of political Islam and the future of democracy in Turkey as cautious optimism. David Coury argues--perhaps erroneously (Pamuk was critical of secular republicanism from early on)--that Snow signifies a shift in Pamuk's political loyalties. (4) Having said this, Pamuk's bitter criticism of state-led modernization in Turkey does not necessarily correspond to Islamic ties or sympathies. If anything, Pamuk defines himself as a rationalist, (5) and according to his former translator Guneli Gun's account, he is a nonbeliever. (6) Scholarly opinion, however, is divided over the extent of his commitment to rationalism. The majority of Pamuk's critics characterize him as a relativist, (7) or a skeptical postmodernist, (8) but Marshall Berman, on the contrary, maintains that Pamuk would probably die for ideas including modernity, the Enlightenment, and secular humanism. (9) This article seeks to interpret Pamuk's emerging optimism in Snow concerning the rise of political Islam and the future of democracy in Turkey from a culturalist perspective on modernization and development, which holds that some cultures are more suitable for social, political, and economic progress than others. (10) Within this context, this article maintains that, in contradistinction to Pamuk's earlier novels, the lack of a reference to religio-cultural obstacles to individuation, modernity, and even democracy in Snow is unconvincing. To go a step further, Pamuk's covert argument for Islamic modernity in Snow (which is a variation of the multiple modernities theory) at the expense of a westernized secular polity in Turkey is insufficiently grounded. Arguably, Pamuk's earlier novels are based on a more sober understanding of the connection between culture and progress. For example, in The Black Book, Pamuk is bitterly critical of the state-led Turkish modernization project and its benevolently despotic masterminds for seeking to abandon Turkey's traditional values and identity. Paradoxically, however, he does not engage in a concrete attempt to vindicate those traditions or offer a viable political alternative to state-led westernization or secular modernity. (11) Rather, in My Name is Red Pamuk suggests that westernization in the Ottoman Empire and in the later Turkish Republic is bound to fail because of deep-seated religious and cultural traditions that hinder the prospects for individuation and modernity. …

Westernization or Modernization: The Political, Economic and Social Attitudes and Desires of the Post-Khomeini Generation in Iran

Abstract: : The purpose of this paper is to answer the following question: Does the generation of Iranians born after the 1979 revolution wish to continue living under the system established by Ayatollah Khomeini, or do they wish to modernize (or perhaps westernize) their current political, social, and economic systems? This group is significant because 70% of the population of Iran is under the age of 30, and an amazing 50% is under the age of 21. This paper uses three broad frameworks to examine the attitudes and desires of the post-Khomeini generation in Iran. The three frameworks used are political, economic, and social policies. To distinguish between attitudes and desires, the following definitions are used. "Attitude" defines how the young Iranians feel, and "desire" describes what the young Iranians want. Iran's history, its political structure, and the importance of the clerical class in Iran also are examined as background information. The study revealed the following: (1) young Iranians have subordinated their immediate desire for political change for changes in the economic and social policies of Iran, (2) any eventual change in the Iranian political system will be evolutionary rather than revolutionary, and (3) the United States Government has little ability to directly influence the attitudes and desires of these young Iranians directly. Despite the latter observation, the United States Government can effectively influence these groups indirectly, through the use of three identified leverage points. The leverage points fall into the general groupings of media, economics, and education. The author contends that there is a low probability that the under-30 generation in Iran will attempt to effect political change in the near future. Sources of information for this paper consisted of published material, including Internet sources and Iranian Web log sites, all written in English.

Western legal prehistory: Reconstructing the hidden origins of Western law and Civilization

Abstract: Western legal prehistory aims to reconstruct some of the earliest proto-legal and cultural developments that gave rise to Western legal systems and the rule of law. So construed, our understanding of Western legal prehistory is currently highly undeveloped. One reason for this fact is methodological: without the aid of written sources, reconstructions of human prehistory can prove difficult. Recent advances in a broad range of cognate fields have, however, accumulated past a critical tipping point, and we are now in a secure enough position to begin to reconstruct important aspects of Western legal prehistory.This Article draws upon and develops these contemporary findings to reconstruct the most plausible genealogical shape of Western legal prehistory. In the process, it reaches a somewhat surprising conclusion. On the traditional view, the most important traditions relevant to the rise of Western law and Western Civilization are said to have originated in ancient Greece, Rome, and Israel. This traditional view is, however, based primarily on historical sources, and the reconstructions in this Article suggest that important precursors of these traditions very likely emerged much earlier and much further to the East. In fact, some of the most important traditions relevant to the emergence of large-scale civilizations with the rule of law in the West would appear to represent just one branch a much richer family of traditions, which began to emerge around 4500 BC in the Eastern-Iran-Bactria-Indus-Valley region. Beginning at this early time, this region began to produce one of the very first ancient civilizations to arise within our natural history as a species (viz., the “Harappan” or “Indus Valley” Civilization), and the people in this region must have therefore developed some of the very first cultural traditions that were specifically adapted to sustaining large-scale civilizations with incipient law. I will be arguing that these ancient developments most likely had a much closer and much more intimate relationship to some of the earliest precursors of Western tradition than has commonly been recognized because these precursors of Western tradition ultimately originated closer to ancient Bactria — which is an area directly adjacent to the Indus Valley but to the east of the Caspian Sea — during this very same time period. The reconstructions developed in this Article will thus allow me to decipher what I take to be the most plausible early genealogical shape of our legal family tree, and to suggest a number of important but underappreciated relationships that obtain between our modern Western traditions and a range of other Eurasian traditions with which the West has typically been contrasted.In today’s world, it is, moreover, especially important that we try to reconstruct the genealogical structure of Western legal prehistory and obtain a better understanding of our deep past. There is now an accumulating body of empirical work, which suggests that we can explain a broad range of features of modern societies in terms of the origins of their laws. This literature suggests that legal origin variables can have strong effects on issues as diverse as corporate governance structure, labor regulations, the robustness of capital markets, and even literacy and infant mortality rates. Whether and how a modern society functions best would thus appear to depend at least in part on the origins of their legal traditions. At the same time, however, both the present legal origins literature and much comparative law scholarship distinguish primarily between the civil versus common law origins of a nation’s legal system, or between both of these types of Western law and various non-Western legal systems; and the findings of this literature have not yet been fully harmonized with the swath of known difficulties that many developing nations have faced in transitioning to large-scale societies with the rule of law regardless of their civil- or common-law origins. The family trees that are employed in the current literature are, moreover, typically identified from the historical record and therefore fail to detect any relevant relations that might have arisen in human prehistory. They tend to focus on a conception of law as a set of publicly stated rules and procedures that are largely exogenous to the underlying cultural traditions and psychological attitudes that tend to support flourishing legal systems. They therefore fail to detect the kinds of emergent cultural traditions (including the culturally emergent psychological attitudes) that first allowed humans to transition from hunter-gatherer forms of life into larger-scale civilizations with the rule of law.The reconstruction offered here will, by contrast, allow us to see almost half of the large-scale mega empires that have arisen throughout world history — including all those that have arisen in the modern West — as having a shared cultural origin that goes much further back in time. The tradition in question first emerged with some of our very first human forays out of hunter-gatherer living and into settled agricultural living with large-scale civilizations and incipient legal traditions. An understanding of this deeper family tree should therefore have important empirical implications. This work can, for example, be used to help explain why certain exportations of Western-style legal institutions have worked so well while others have not. This work can also be used to identify a number of important but underappreciated features of Western traditions that are shared with these broader Eurasian traditions and have been playing a critical — if underappreciated — role in helping to sustain various forms of social complexity and economic development over the course of world history. Hence, this work can help us understand better some of the full causes and conditions of our modern success in the West. Inquiries of this kind should have special urgency today, given the massive exportations of Western law and Western legal institutions to so many other parts of the world and given the increased pressures toward Westernization that are being felt around the globe.

Western Imperialism and Military Reform in Japan and China

Abstract: This paper compares the initial efforts at military reform in China and Japan in the late nineteenth century. Changes in military organization and training are situated within a global process of military transformation represented by changes in the structure of the Prussian army. The Prussian staff system and planning program were imported into both Japan and China, but with quite different results. The paper contrasts centralization and standardization as typified by the new Japanese army with the decentered approaches in China. The paper argues that although there was substantive change in China, the Qing state was unable to impose a uniform plan for military Westernization. As a result, the new armies were never integrated into a common organization capable of defending the state from external aggression.

Western Legal Prehistory: Reconstructing the Hidden Origins of Western Law and Civilization

Abstract: Western legal prehistory aims to reconstruct some of the earliest proto-legal and cultural developments that gave rise to Western legal systems and the rule of law So construed, our understanding of Western legal prehistory is currently highly undeveloped One reason for this fact is methodological: without the aid of written sources, reconstructions of human prehistory can prove difficult Recent advances in a broad range of cognate fields have, however, accumulated past a critical tipping point, and we are now in a secure enough position to begin to reconstruct important aspects of Western legal prehistoryThis Article draws upon and develops these contemporary findings to reconstruct the most plausible genealogical shape of Western legal prehistory In the process, it reaches a somewhat surprising conclusion On the traditional view, the most important traditions relevant to the rise of Western law and Western Civilization are said to have originated in ancient Greece, Rome, and Israel This traditional view is, however, based primarily on historical sources, and the reconstructions in this Article suggest that important precursors of these traditions very likely emerged much earlier and much further to the East In fact, some of the most important traditions relevant to the emergence of large-scale civilizations with the rule of law in the West would appear to represent just one branch a much richer family of traditions, which began to emerge around 4500 BC in the Eastern-Iran-Bactria-Indus-Valley region Beginning at this early time, this region began to produce one of the very first ancient civilizations to arise within our natural history as a species (viz, the “Harappan” or “Indus Valley” Civilization), and the people in this region must have therefore developed some of the very first cultural traditions that were specifically adapted to sustaining large-scale civilizations with incipient law I will be arguing that these ancient developments most likely had a much closer and much more intimate relationship to some of the earliest precursors of Western tradition than has commonly been recognized because these precursors of Western tradition ultimately originated closer to ancient Bactria — which is an area directly adjacent to the Indus Valley but to the east of the Caspian Sea — during this very same time period The reconstructions developed in this Article will thus allow me to decipher what I take to be the most plausible early genealogical shape of our legal family tree, and to suggest a number of important but underappreciated relationships that obtain between our modern Western traditions and a range of other Eurasian traditions with which the West has typically been contrastedIn today’s world, it is, moreover, especially important that we try to reconstruct the genealogical structure of Western legal prehistory and obtain a better understanding of our deep past There is now an accumulating body of empirical work, which suggests that we can explain a broad range of features of modern societies in terms of the origins of their laws This literature suggests that legal origin variables can have strong effects on issues as diverse as corporate governance structure, labor regulations, the robustness of capital markets, and even literacy and infant mortality rates Whether and how a modern society functions best would thus appear to depend at least in part on the origins of their legal traditions At the same time, however, both the present legal origins literature and much comparative law scholarship distinguish primarily between the civil versus common law origins of a nation’s legal system, or between both of these types of Western law and various non-Western legal systems; and the findings of this literature have not yet been fully harmonized with the swath of known difficulties that many developing nations have faced in transitioning to large-scale societies with the rule of law regardless of their civil- or common-law origins The family trees that are employed in the current literature are, moreover, typically identified from the historical record and therefore fail to detect any relevant relations that might have arisen in human prehistory They tend to focus on a conception of law as a set of publicly stated rules and procedures that are largely exogenous to the underlying cultural traditions and psychological attitudes that tend to support flourishing legal systems They therefore fail to detect the kinds of emergent cultural traditions (including the culturally emergent psychological attitudes) that first allowed humans to transition from hunter-gatherer forms of life into larger-scale civilizations with the rule of lawThe reconstruction offered here will, by contrast, allow us to see almost half of the large-scale mega empires that have arisen throughout world history — including all those that have arisen in the modern West — as having a shared cultural origin that goes much further back in time The tradition in question first emerged with some of our very first human forays out of hunter-gatherer living and into settled agricultural living with large-scale civilizations and incipient legal traditions An understanding of this deeper family tree should therefore have important empirical implications This work can, for example, be used to help explain why certain exportations of Western-style legal institutions have worked so well while others have not This work can also be used to identify a number of important but underappreciated features of Western traditions that are shared with these broader Eurasian traditions and have been playing a critical — if underappreciated — role in helping to sustain various forms of social complexity and economic development over the course of world history Hence, this work can help us understand better some of the full causes and conditions of our modern success in the West Inquiries of this kind should have special urgency today, given the massive exportations of Western law and Western legal institutions to so many other parts of the world and given the increased pressures toward Westernization that are being felt around the globe

Framings of the East: Rebranding Beliefs and Religions

Abstract: The discourse on East–West relations was always, until quite recently, dominated by the ‘Westernization thesis’ with the emergence of the ‘Easternization thesis’. The Westernization thesis is derived from the understanding that the West has developed for itself a collection of universal values that control the whole world (Latouche, 1996). The Easternization thesis suggests that Eastern concepts and practices have shaped the Western mindset in its discursive, practical and aesthetic spheres of existence (Dawson, 2006, p. 1). As early as 1995, Howell saw the rise of Asian power as a kind of Easternization that has affected the West socio- economically. A more thorough analysis on the ‘Easternization of the West’, however, comes from Campbell (1999, 2007). Drawing evidence from Yogaization, the rehabilitation of nature and the emergence of the New Age Movement, Campbell (2007), has produced a detailed study on how Western civilization has gone through cultural change in the modern era with ideas and values derived from Asia. From the perspective of power, however, has the Easternization thesis materially overthrown the Westernization thesis, or is it indeed the West that has reshaped, refashioned and rebranded the East under its ‘gaze’, which Foucault defined as ‘the act of seeing’ in The Birth of the Clinic (1973).