How to Do Things With Words

Preparing words in speech production is normally a fast and accurate process. We generate them two or three per second in fluent conversation; and overtly naming a clear picture of an object can easily be initiated within 600 msec after picture onset. The underlying process, however, is exceedingly complex. The theory reviewed in this target article analyzes this process as staged and feed-forward. After a first stage of conceptual preparation, word generation proceeds through lexical selection, morphological and phonological encoding, phonetic encoding, and articulation itself. In addition, the speaker exerts some degree of output control, by monitoring of self-produced internal and overt speech. The core of the theory, ranging from lexical selection to the initiation of phonetic encoding, is captured in a computational model, called WEAVER++. Both the theory and the computational model have been developed in interaction with reaction time experiments, particularly in picture naming or related word production paradigms, with the aim of accounting for the real-time processing in normal word production. A comprehensive review of theory, model, and experiments is presented. The model can handle some of the main observations in the domain of speech errors (the major empirical domain for most other theories of lexical access), and the theory opens new ways of approaching the cerebral organization of speech production by way of high-temporal-resolution imaging.

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A theory of lexical access in speech production.

The generation of words in speech involves a number of processing stages. There is, first, a stage of conceptual preparation; this is followed by stages of lexical selection, phonological encoding, phonetic encoding and articulation. In addition, the speaker monitors the output and, if necessary, self-corrects. Major parts of the theory have been computer modelled. The paper concentrates on experimental reaction time evidence in support of the theory.

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A theory of lexical access in speech production

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An Introduction To The Event Related Potential Technique

人教版高中英语新课程教材中,语言运用（Using Language）是每个单元必不可少的部分,提供了围绕单元中心话题的听、说、读、写的综合性练习,是单元中心话题的延续和升华.如何设计Using Language部分的教学,使自己的教学模式既不落俗套,又能真正体现新课程标准所倡导的教学理念,正是广大一线英语教师一直努力探索的问题.

打磨Using Language,倡导新理念

On the basis of the data presented in our Table 4, which shows an inverse correlation between the latency to nadir of symptoms and the chance of complete recovery, we agree with Professor Hughes and colleagues that a longer latency to nadir was an adverse prognostic factor in our study. However, the duration of active disease (measured as the time from onset to remission or stabilization of symptoms) also seemed to adversely affect the prognosis of Guillain– Barré syndrome in our cases (see table 4 in Italian Guillain– Barré Study Group, 1996). This latter finding is in keeping with other reports (Ravn, 1967; Kaur et al., 1986; Raphael et al., 1986; Winer et al., 1988) and is mentioned in the Discussion of the Italian Guillain–Barré Study Group (1996) as the feature our data confirmed. Probably, the sentence ‘We confirmed these findings’ should be changed to ‘We partly confirmed these findings’. Although details of the neurological examination are given for most patients, arm disability was not specifically assessed as a prognostic variable. However, the report of an adverse effect of complete paralysis of the arms is in agreement with personal observations and with clinical experience. We agree with Professor Hughes’ criticism that there is incompatibility between the text (reporting a faster recovery among patients receiving immunoglobulins) and Fig. 3 (showing that people treated with plasma exchange had a faster recovery). This was due to an erroneous label in the figure (plasma exchange and immunoglobulins were the wrong way round). Finally, at the time of submission of this paper, the results of the trial of plasma exchange, intravenous immunoglobulins and combined treatments in Guillain–Barré syndrome (Plasma Exchange/Sandoglobulin Guillain–Barré Syndrome Trial Group, 1997) were not available. At that time, the need for comparative trials was justified as only plasma exchange was known to be superior to placebo (Guillain–Barré Syndrome Study Group, 1985; French Cooperative Group on Plasma Exchange in Guillain–Barré Syndrome, 1992), there was only one study comparing immunoglobulins and plasma exchange (van der Meché et al., 1991), and evidence of a long-term efficacy of this therapeutic strategy was insufficient (French

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Evidence for lateral premotor and parietal overactivity in parkinson's disease during sequential and bimanual movements. a pet study

Individual differences in second language acquisition

Two experiments examined phonological priming effects on reaction times, error rates, and event-related brain potential (ERP) measures in an auditory lexical decision task. In Experiment 1 related prime-target pairs rhymed, and in Experiment 2 they alliterated (i.e., shared the consonantal onset and vowel). Event-related potentials were recorded in a delayed response task. Reaction times and error rates were obtained both for the delayed and an immediate response task. The behavioral data of Experiment 1 provided evidence for phonological facilitation of word, but not of nonword decisions. The brain potentials were more negative to unrelated than to rhyming word-word pairs between 450 and 700 rnsec after target onset. This negative enhancement was not present for word-nonword pairs. Thus, the ERP results match the behavioral data. The behavioral data of Experiment 2 provided no evidence for phonological Facilitation. However, between 250 and 450 msec after target onset, i.e., considerably earlier than in Experiment 1, brain potentials were more negative for unrelated than for alliterating Word-word and word-nonword pairs. It is argued that the ERP effects in the two experiments could be modulations of the same underlying component, possibly the N400. The difference in the timing of the effects is likely to be due to the fact that the shared segments in related stimulus pairs appeared in different word positions in the two experiments.

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Neurophysiological manifestations of phonological processing: Latency variation of a negative erp component timelocked to phonological mismatch

A case for the lemma/lexeme distinction in models of speaking: comment on Caramazza and Miozzo (1997)

Numerous studies in psychology, cognitive neuroscience and psycholinguistics have used pictures of objects as stimulus materials. Currently, authors engaged in cross-linguistic work or wishing to run parallel studies at multiple sites where different languages are spoken must rely on rather small sets of black-and-white or colored line drawings. These sets are increasingly experienced as being too limited. Therefore, we constructed a new set of 750 colored pictures of concrete concepts. This set, MultiPic, constitutes a new valuable tool for cognitive scientists investigating language, visual perception, memory and/or attention in monolingual or multilingual populations. Importantly, the MultiPic databank has been normed in six different European languages (British English, Spanish, French, Dutch, Italian and German). All stimuli and norms are freely available at http://www.bcbl.eu/databases/multipic

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Antje S. Meyer

Papers

Evidence for lateral premotor and parietal overactivity in parkinson's disease during sequential and bimanual movements. a pet study

Individual differences in second language acquisition

Neurophysiological manifestations of phonological processing: Latency variation of a negative erp component timelocked to phonological mismatch

A case for the lemma/lexeme distinction in models of speaking: comment on Caramazza and Miozzo (1997)

MultiPic: a standardized set of 750 drawings with norms for six European languages