世界経済・社会統計 = World development indicators

2 1 The innovative transport systems and the CityMobil project 10 1.1 The research questions 10 2 The state of art in the field of automatic transport systems 12 2.1 Case studies and demand studies for innovative transport systems 12 3 The design and implementation of surveys 14 3.1 Definition of experimental design 14 3.2 Questionnaire design and delivery 16 3.3 First analyses on the collected sample 18 4 Calibration of Logit Multionomial demand models 21 4.1 Methodology 21 4.2 Calibration of the “full” model. 22 4.3 Calibration of the “final” model 24 4.4 The demand analysis through the final Multinomial Logit model 25 5 The analysis of interaction between the demand and socioeconomic attributes 31 5.1 Methodology 31 5.2 Application of Mixed Logit models to the demand 31 5.3 Analysis of the interactions between demand and socioeconomic attributes through Mixed Logit models 32 5.4 Mixed Logit model and interaction between age and the demand for the CTS 38 5.5 Demand analysis with Mixed Logit model 39 6 Final analyses and conclusions 45 6.1 Comparison between the results of the analyses 45 6.2 Conclusions 48 6.3 Answers to the research questions and future developments 52

The European commission

Mitigation from a cross-sectoral perspective

▶ Addresses a wide range of timely environment, economic and energy topics ▶ A forum to review, analyze and stimulate the development, testing and implementation of mitigation and adaptation strategies at regional, national and global scales ▶ Contributes to real-time policy analysis and development as national and international policies and agreements are discussed and promulgated ▶ 94% of authors who answered a survey reported that they would definitely publish or probably publish in the journal again

Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change

This chapter discusses leading problems linked to energy that the world is now confronting and to propose some ideas concerning possible solutions. Oil deserves special attention among all energy sources. Since the beginning of 1981, it has merely been continuing and enhancing the downward movement in consumption and prices caused by excessive rises, especially for light crudes such as those from Africa, and the slowing down of worldwide economic growth. Densely-populated oil-producing countries need to produce to live, to pay for their food and their equipment. If the economic growth of the industrialized countries were to be 4%, even if investment in the rational use of energy were pushed to the limit and the development of nonpetroleum energy sources were also pursued actively, it would be extremely difficult to prevent a sharp rise in prices. It is evident that it is absolutely necessary to pursue actively the development of coal, natural gas, and nuclear power if a physical shortage of energy is not to block economic growth.

World energy outlook

Unilateral climate policy induces carbon leakage through the relocation of emission-intensive and trade-exposed industries to regions with no or more lenient emission regulation. Both analytical and numerical studies suggest that emission pricing combined with border carbon adjustment is a secondbest instrument, and more cost-effective than output-based rebating, in which case domestic output is indirectly subsidized. No country has so far imposed border carbon adjustment, while variants of output-based rebating have been implemented. In this paper we show that combining output-based rebating for emission-intensive and trade-exposed goods with a consumption tax on the same goods can be equivalent with border carbon adjustment. Moreover, we demonstrate that it is welfare improving for a region which has already implemented emission pricing along with output-based rebating to also introduce such a consumption tax. We conclude that supplementing output-based rebating with a consumption tax constitutes smart hedging against carbon leakage: Compared to output-based rebating stand-alone it constitutes a robust strategy for improving cost-effectiveness of unilateral climate policy; compared to border carbon adjustment it limits the risks of potentially detrimental trade disputes.

Smart hedging against carbon leakage

Unilateral climate policy induces carbon leakage through the relocation of emission-intensive and trade-exposed industries to regions with no or more lenient emission regulation Both analytical and numerical studies suggest that emission pricing combined with border carbon adjustment is a secondbest instrument, and more cost-effective than output-based rebating, in which case domestic output is indirectly subsidized No country has so far imposed border carbon adjustment, while variants of output-based rebating have been implemented In this paper we show that combining output-based rebating for emission-intensive and trade-exposed goods with a consumption tax on the same goods can be equivalent with border carbon adjustment Moreover, we demonstrate that it is welfare improving for a region which has already implemented emission pricing along with output-based rebating to also introduce such a consumption tax We conclude that supplementing output-based rebating with a consumption tax constitutes smart hedging against carbon leakage: Compared to output-based rebating stand-alone it constitutes a robust strategy for improving cost-effectiveness of unilateral climate policy; compared to border carbon adjustment it limits the risks of potentially detrimental trade disputes

/pdf/smart-hedging-against-carbon-leakage-2u3lmxg30j.pdf

Over the last decade Germany has boosted renewable energy in power production by means of massive subsidies. The ip side arevery high electricity prices which raises concerns that the transition
cost towards a renewable energy system will be mainly borne by poor
households. In this paper, we combine computable general equilibrium
and microsimulation analysis to investigate the cost-effectiveness and incidence of Germany's renewable energy promotion. We find that the regressive effects of renewable energy promotion could be ameliorated
by alternative subsidy financing mechanisms which achieve the same
level of electricity generation from renewable energy sources.

https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/148225/1/865202346.pdf

Cost-effectiveness and incidence of renewable energy promotion in Germany

Given the bleak prospects for a global agreement on coordinated policies to mitigate climate change, political pressure is increasing among industrialized countries for unilateral abatement. A major challenge thereby is the appropriate response to the threat of emissions leakage. Border carbon adjustments and output-based allocation of emissions allowances can increase effectiveness of unilateral action but introduce distortions of their own. We assess the relative attractiveness of these anti-leakage measures as a function of the abatement coalition size. We first develop a partial equilibrium analytical framework to gain generic insights on how these instruments affect emissions within and outside the coalition. We then employ a large-scale computable general equilibrium model of international trade and energy use to assess the cost-effectiveness of alternative anti-leakage strategies as the coalition evolves toward global coverage. We find that full border adjustments rank first in global cost-effectiveness, followed by import tariffs and then output-based rebates. The differences across anti-leakage measures and the overall appeal of such measures decline with the size of the abatement coalition. In terms of cost incidence, the abatement coalition prefers border carbon adjustments over output-based rebates; the opposite holds true for countries outside the coalition.

Cost-Effective Climate Policy Design: Size Matters

Die Klimaschutzdiskussion wird von der Frage dominiert, welche gesamtwirtschaftlichen Kosten mit der Umgestaltung des Energiesystems zu klimavertraglichen Strukturen verbunden sind. Hohe und Verteilung dieser Kosten entscheiden daruber, ob sich umweltpolitische Strategien zum nachhaltigen Schutz der Erdatmosphare durchsetzen lassen. Fur Kostenschatzungen des Klimaschutzes werden typischerweise quantitative Modelle des energie- oder volkswirtschaftlichen Systems eingesetzt. Allerdings weisen modellgestutzte Studien erhebliche Unterschiede in den Kostenschatzungen aus, was zu widerspruchlichen politischen Handlungsempfehlungen fuhren kann. Ziel des folgenden Beitrages ist es, die mit quantitativen Wirtschaftsmodellen ermittelten Kosten von Klimaschutzstrategien vor dem Hintergrund wichtiger Determinanten zu analysieren. Das Verstandnis fur wichtige Determinanten der Kostenschatzungen ist eine Voraussetzung fur die richtige Interpretation von Kostengrosen und damit Grundlage fur eine rationale Klimapolitik.

https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/24306/1/dp2099.pdf

Christoph Böhringer

Papers

Smart hedging against carbon leakage

Smart hedging against carbon leakage

Cost-effectiveness and incidence of renewable energy promotion in Germany

Cost-Effective Climate Policy Design: Size Matters

Die Kosten von Klimaschutz : Eine Interpretationshilfe für die mit quantitativen Wirtschaftsmodellen ermittelten Kostenschätzungen