抗原变异可使得多种致病微生物易于逃避宿主免疫应答。表达在感染红细胞表面的恶性疟原虫红细胞表面蛋白1（PfPMP1）与感染红细胞、内皮细胞、树突状细胞以及胎盘的单个或多个受体作用，在黏附及免疫逃避中起关键的作用。每个单倍体基因组var基因家族编码约60种成员，通过启动转录不同的var基因变异体为抗原变异提供了分子基础。

疟原虫var基因转换速率变化导致抗原变异[英]／Paul H, Robert P, Christodoulou Z, et al//Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A

Preface to the Princeton Landmarks in Biology Edition vii Preface xi Symbols Used xiii 1. The Importance of Islands 3 2. Area and Number of Speicies 8 3. Further Explanations of the Area-Diversity Pattern 19 4. The Strategy of Colonization 68 5. Invasibility and the Variable Niche 94 6. Stepping Stones and Biotic Exchange 123 7. Evolutionary Changes Following Colonization 145 8. Prospect 181 Glossary 185 References 193 Index 201

The Theory of Island Biogeography

The influence of diet on the distribution of nitrogen isotopes in animals was investigated by analyzing animals grown in the laboratory on diets of constant nitrogen isotopic composition. 
The isotopic composition of the nitrogen in an animal reflects the nitrogen isotopic composition of its diet. The δ^(15)N values of the whole bodies of animals are usually more positive than those of their diets. Different individuals of a species raised on the same diet can have significantly different δ^(15)N values. The variability of the relationship between the δ^(15)N values of animals and their diets is greater for different species raised on the same diet than for the same species raised on different diets. Different tissues of mice are also enriched in ^(15)N relative to the diet, with the difference between the δ^(15)N values of a tissue and the diet depending on both the kind of tissue and the diet involved. The δ^(15)N values of collagen and chitin, biochemical components that are often preserved in fossil animal remains, are also related to the δ^(15)N value of the diet. 
The dependence of the δ^(15)N values of whole animals and their tissues and biochemical components on the δ^(15)N value of diet indicates that the isotopic composition of animal nitrogen can be used to obtain information about an animal's diet if its potential food sources had different δ^(15)N values. The nitrogen isotopic method of dietary analysis probably can be used to estimate the relative use of legumes vs non-legumes or of aquatic vs terrestrial organisms as food sources for extant and fossil animals. However, the method probably will not be applicable in those modern ecosystems in which the use of chemical fertilizers has influenced the distribution of nitrogen isotopes in food sources. 
The isotopic method of dietary analysis was used to reconstruct changes in the diet of the human population that occupied the Tehuacan Valley of Mexico over a 7000 yr span. Variations in the δ^(15)C and δ^(15)N values of bone collagen suggest that C_4 and/or CAM plants (presumably mostly corn) and legumes (presumably mostly beans) were introduced into the diet much earlier than suggested by conventional archaeological analysis.

Influence of Diet On the Distribtion of Nitrogen Isotopes in Animals

I. the origin of species by means of natural selection

Beginning with Emlen (1966) and MacArthur and Pianka (1966) and extending through the last ten years, several authors have sought to predict the foraging behavior of animals by means of mathematical models. These models are very similar,in that they all assume that the fitness of a foraging animal is a function of the efficiency of foraging measured in terms of some "currency" (Schoener, 1971) -usually energy- and that natural selection has resulted in animals that forage so as to maximize this fitness. As a result of these similarities, the models have become known as "optimal foraging models"; and the theory that embodies them, "optimal foraging theory." The situations to which optimal foraging theory has been applied, with the exception of a few recent studies, can be divided into the following four categories: (1) choice by an animal of which food types to eat (i.e., optimal diet); (2) choice of which patch type to feed in (i.e., optimal patch choice); (3) optimal allocation of time to different patches; and (4) optimal patterns and speed of movements. In this review we discuss each of these categories separately, dealing with both the theoretical developments and the data that permit tests of the predictions. The review is selective in the sense that we emphasize studies that either develop testable predictions or that attempt to test predictions in a precise quantitative manner. We also discuss what we see to be some of the future developments in the area of optimal foraging theory and how this theory can be related to other areas of biology. Our general conclusion is that the simple models so far formulated are supported are supported reasonably well by available data and that we are optimistic about the value both now and in the future of optimal foraging theory. We argue, however, that these simple models will requre much modification, espicially to deal with situations that either cannot easily be put into one or another of the above four categories or entail currencies more complicated that just energy.

Citation classic - optimal foraging - a selective review of theory and tests

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/9780470015902.a0021231

Stable Isotope Ecology

There have been numerous recent observations of changes in the behavior and dynamics of migratory bird populations, but the plasticity of the migratory trait and our inability to track small animals over large distances have hindered investigation of the mechanisms behind migratory change. We used habitat-specific stable isotope signatures to show that recently evolved allopatric wintering populations of European blackcaps Sylvia atricapilla pair assortatively on their sympatric breeding grounds. Birds wintering further north also produce larger clutches and fledge more young. These findings describe an important process in the evolution of migratory divides, new migration routes, and wintering quarters. Temporal segregation of breeding is a way in which subpopulations of vertebrates may become isolated in sympatry.

https://science.sciencemag.org/content/sci/310/5747/502.full.pdf

Assortative Mating as a Mechanism for Rapid Evolution of a Migratory Divide

Summary 1. The large amount of discards produced by commercial fisheries can have major impacts on
marine predator populations: this abundant food may increase populations of some scavengers or
decrease others via accidental bycatch. Yet, despite the conservation implications of discard
practices, the ecology of individual scavengers is poorly understood. 2. Here, we assess the influence of commercial fisheries’ activity on the foraging behaviour of
individual breeding northern gannets Morus bassanus. Using recent developments in stable isotope
mixing models (Stable Isotope Analysis inR or SIAR) we estimate individual discard consumption.
Using GPS tracking and the Vessel Monitoring System (VMS), we investigate behavioural
responses to trawlers. 3. Analysis of conventional diet samples, as well as stable isotope ratios of carbon and nitrogen
in blood (plasma and cells), highlight marked individual differences in the proportion of fishery
discards in the diet. Individual differences in foraging behaviour revealed by stable isotopes show
evidence of both short-termconsistency and behavioural flexibility. 4. At-sea path tortuosity of 25 gannets (tracked using GPS loggers) revealed scale-dependent
adjustments in response to VMS-derived fishing vessel locations, as well as to sea surface temperature,
chlorophyll a concentration and copepod abundance. The results also indicate individual
variability in behavioural response to trawlers. 5. Individual differences in the amount of discards estimated from SIAR were negatively correlated
with differences in foraging trip length and body condition, indicating potential fitness
consequences. 6. Synthesis and applications. The management of commercial fisheries and apex predators is a
daunting task. Ultimately, reducing bycatch and removing dependency on discards remain key
conservation priorities, but managers should also ensure that scavenging species have sufficient
alternative food to meet their energetic needs, to ameliorate potential unforeseen knock-on
consequences. The results of Stable Isotope Analysis (SIAR) reveal intra-population differences in
discard consumption by gannets; differences that have impacts on foraging effort and body condition.
The use of GPS tracking and Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) reveal that gannet at-sea
behaviour is influenced by fishing vessels, although this also varies among individuals. A combination
of SIAR, GPS tracking and VMS can be used to study fishery ⁄ scavenger interactions in detail
at the individual level, to answer fundamental questions about scavenging behaviour.

https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2010.01790.x

Individual responses of seabirds to commercial fisheries revealed using GPS tracking, stable isotopes and vessel monitoring systems

When species occupy habitats that vary in quality, choice of habitat can be critical in determining individual fitness. In most migratory species, juveniles migrate independently of their parents and must therefore choose both breeding and winter habitats. Using a unique dataset of marked black-tailed godwits (Limosa limosa islandica) tracked throughout their migratory range, combined with analyses of stable carbon isotope ratios, we show that those individuals that occupy higher quality breeding sites also use higher quality winter sites. This seasonal matching can severely inflate inequalities in individual fitness. This population has expanded over the last century into poorer quality breeding and winter habitats and, across the whole population; individual birds tend to occupy either novel or traditional sites in both seasons. Winter and breeding season habitat selection are thus strongly linked throughout this population; these links have profound implications for a wide range of population and evolutionary processes. As adult godwits are highly philopatric, the initial choice of winter habitat by juveniles will be critical in determining future survival, timing of migration and breeding success.

Jason Newton

Papers

Stable Isotope Ecology

Assortative Mating as a Mechanism for Rapid Evolution of a Migratory Divide

Individual responses of seabirds to commercial fisheries revealed using GPS tracking, stable isotopes and vessel monitoring systems

Seasonal matching of habitat quality and fitness in a migratory bird

Revisiting the sphingolipid rheostat: Evolving concepts in cancer therapy.