Garnets have the general formula of A3B2C3O12 and form a wide range of inorganic compounds, occurring both naturally (gemstones) and synthetically. Their physical and chemical properties are closely related to the structure and composition. In particular, Ce3+-doped garnet phosphors have a long history and are widely applied, ranging from flying spot cameras, lasers and phosphors in fluorescent tubes to more recent applications in white light LEDs, as afterglow materials and scintillators for medical imaging. Garnet phosphors are unique in their tunability of the luminescence properties through variations in the {A}, [B] and (C) cation sublattice. The flexibility in phosphor composition and the tunable luminescence properties rely on design and synthesis strategies for new garnet compositions with tailor-made luminescence properties. It is the aim of this review to discuss the variation in luminescence properties of Ce3+-doped garnet materials in relation to the applications. This review will provide insight into the relation between crystal chemistry and luminescence for the important class of Ce3+-doped garnet phosphors. It will summarize previous research on the structural design and optical properties of garnet phosphors and also discuss future research opportunities in this field.

/pdf/ce3-doped-garnet-phosphors-composition-modification-nbgcnr4sys.pdf

Ce3+-Doped garnet phosphors: composition modification, luminescence properties and applications.

In this review, the major achievements and research and development (R&D) trends from the last decade in the field of single crystal scintillator materials are described. Two material families are included, namely, those of halide and oxide compounds. In most cases, the host crystals are doped with Ce3+, Pr3+ or Eu2+ rare earth ions. Their spin- and parity-allowed 5d–4f transitions enable a rapid scintillation response, on the order of tens to hundreds of nanoseconds. Technological recipes, extended characterization by means of optical and magnetic spectroscopies, and theoretical studies are described. The latter provide further support to experimental results and provide a better understanding of the host electronic band structure, energy levels of specific defects, and the emission centers themselves. Applications in medical imaging and dosimetry, security measures, high-energy physics and the high-tech industry, in which X(γ)-rays or particle beams are used and monitored, are recognized as the main driving factor for R&D activities in this field.

Recent R&D Trends in Inorganic Single-Crystal Scintillator Materials for Radiation Detection

Comparative study of ceramic and single crystal Ce:GAGG scintillator

Scintillators, which are capable of converting ionizing radiation into visible photons, are an integral part of medical, security, and commercial diagnostic technologies such as X-ray imaging, nuclear cameras, and computed tomography. Conventional scintillator fabrication typically involves high-temperature sintering, generating agglomerated powders or large bulk crystals, which pose major challenges for device integration and processability. On the other hand, colloidal quantum dot scintillators cannot be cast into compact solid films with the necessary thickness required for most X-ray applications. Here, we report the room-temperature synthesis of a colloidal scintillator comprising CsPbBr3 nanosheets of large concentration (up to 150 mg/mL). The CsPbBr3 colloid exhibits a light yield (∼21000 photons/MeV) higher than that of the commercially available Ce:LuAG single-crystal scintillator (∼18000 photons/MeV). Scintillators based on these nanosheets display both strong radioluminescence (RL) and long-term stability under X-ray illumination. Importantly, the colloidal scintillator can be readily cast into a uniform crack-free large-area film (8.5 × 8.5 cm2 in area) with the requisite thickness for high-resolution X-ray imaging applications. We showcase prototype applications of these high-quality scintillating films as X-ray imaging screens for a cellphone panel and a standard central processing unit chip. Our radiography prototype combines large-area processability with high resolution and a strong penetration ability to sheath materials, such as resin and silicon. We reveal an energy transfer process inside those stacked nanosheet solids that is responsible for their superb scintillation performance. Our findings demonstrate a large-area solution-processed scintillator of stable and efficient RL as a promising approach for low-cost radiography and X-ray imaging applications.

Metal Halide Perovskite Nanosheet for X-ray High-Resolution Scintillation Imaging Screens.

Photocurrent excitation spectra were measured to investigate the quenching in the garnet solid solutions Intense photocurrent excitation bands attributed to the lowest 5d1 and the second lowest 5d2 levels were observed in the Ce-doped Y3Al2Ga3O12 (Ce:YAGG) and Y3Ga5O12 (Ce:YGG) Based on the results of temperature dependence of photoconductivity, the 5d1 and 5d2 levels in the Ce:YAGG are found to be located below and within the conduction band, respectively, while both levels in the Ce:YGG are found to be located within its conduction band located at lower energy levels In addition, the threshold of photoionization from the 4f level of Ce3+ to the conduction band in the Ce:YAGG and Ce:YGG were estimated to be 32, and 28 eV, respectively We conclude that the main quenching process in the Ce:YAGG is caused by the thermally stimulated ionization process with activation energy of 90 meV from the 5d1 to the conduction band, and that in the Ce:YGG is caused by the direct ionization process from the 5d levels to the conduction band

https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/150456/1/1.3632069.pdf

Analysis of Ce3+ luminescence quenching in solid solutions between Y3Al5O12 and Y3Ga5O12 by temperature dependence of photoconductivity measurement

We have developed a new nonstoichiometric Gd 3+δ (Al,Ga) 5-δ O 12 :Ce garnet scintillator for an X-ray CT scanner. For commercially used scintillators, reproducible luminescence properties are of great importance. We have found that the afterglow properties of the garnet change drastically in the vicinity of the stoichiometric compositions. The most suitable properties are obtained at slightly excess (Gd,Ce) compositions from the stoichiometry. In order to investigate the afterglow properties, crystallography arrangements, phase equilibrium relationship between crystal phases, and luminescence characteristics of host material doped with different valence ions have been examined. The luminescence properties are explained by isoelectronic traps based on the difference in the electronegativity of the dopant and host ions, which would act as electron trap centers and hole trap centers within the band gap.

Characteristics of a Nonstoichiometric Gd3+δ(Al,Ga)5−δO12:Ce Garnet Scintillator

We develop a heterogeneous multi-core SoC for applications, such as digital TV systems with IP networks (IP-TV) including image recognition and database search. Figure 5.3.1 shows the chip features. This SoC is capable of decoding 1080i audio/video data using a part of SoC (one general-purpose CPU core, video processing unit called VPU5 and sound processing unit called SPU) [1]. Four dynamically reconfigurable processors called FE [2] are integrated and have a total theoretical performance of 41.5GOPS and power consumption of 0.76W. Two 1024-way matrix-processors called MX-2 [3] are integrated and have a total theoretical performance of 36.9GOPS and power consumption of 1.10W. Overall, the performance per watt of our SoC is 37.3GOPS/W at 1.15V, the highest among comparable processors [4–6] excluding special-purpose codecs. The operation granularity of the CPU, FE and MX-2 are 32bit, 16bit, and 4bit respectively, and thus we can assign the appropriate processor for each task in an effective manner. A heterogeneous multi-core approach is one of the most promising approaches to attain high performance with low frequency, or low power, for consumer electronics application and scientific applications, compared to homogeneous multi-core SoCs [4]. For example, for image-recognition application in the IP-TV system, the FEs are assigned to calculate optical flow operation [7] of VGA (640×480) size video data at 15fps, which requires 0.62GOPS. The MX-2s are used for face detection and calculation of the feature quantity of the VGA video data at 15fps, which requires 30.6GOPS. In addition, general-purpose CPU cores are used for database search using the results of the above operations, which requires further enhancement of CPU. The automatic parallelization compilers analyze parallelism of the data flow, generate coarse grain tasks, schedule tasks to minimize execution time considering data transfer overhead for general-purpose CPU and FE.

A 45nm 37.3GOPS/W heterogeneous multi-core SoC

We have developed a hot-pressing method for consolidating garnet scintillator powder of composition Gd3(Al,Ga)5O12:Ce. Thermodynamic analysis revealed that gallium oxide, which was a constituent of the garnet scintillator powder, would react with the graphite mold beginning at 950°C and would be reduced to gallium metal. To prevent this reaction during hot-pressing, a reaction barrier material was placed between the graphite mold and the scintillator powder. As for the reaction barrier material, 3GdAlO3–Al2O3 powder calcined at 1100°C was found to be suitable because the material provided two important characteristics: the same thermal expansion coefficient as the scintillator material and good sinterability. The Gd3(Al,Ga)5O12:Ce garnet scintillator powder was hot pressed at 1475°C for 4 h in vacuum, followed by annealing at 1300°C for 4 h in oxygen atmosphere. The thus obtained garnet scintillator successfully satisfied the necessary requirements for use in an X-ray computed tomography detector.

Hot‐Pressing Method to Consolidate Gd3(Al,Ga)5O12:Ce Garnet Scintillator Powder for use in an X‐ray CT Detector

Application programs in scientific and technological fields have grown increasingly large and complex. Thus, it is becoming more difficult to parallelize these programs by hand using message-passing libraries. To reduce this difficulty, we are researching the compilation technology for an industry-standard data-parallel language: High Performance Fortran (HPF). This paper proposes new data-mapping analysis applicable to HPF data-remapping directives more general than those previous research has coped with. This analysis allows programmers to develop highly productive HPF programs. We implemented the analysis in our HPF compiler and evaluated using some benchmark programs. As a result, both programs with general HPF directives and with restricted ones were transformed to similar codes and these codes ran in similar processing speed on a Hitachi SR2201 supercomputer.

Analysis of two-level data mapping in an HPF compiler for distributed-memory machines

Stereotactic neurosurgery is an established technique, but it has several limitations. In frame-based stereotaxy using a stereotactic frame, frame setting errors may decrease the accuracy of the procedure. Frameless stereotaxy using neuronavigation requires surgeons to shift their view from the surgical field to the navigation display and to advance the needle while assuming a physically uncomfortable position. To overcome these limitations, several researchers have applied augmented reality in stereotactic neurosurgery. Augmented reality enables surgeons to visualize the information regarding the target and preplanned trajectory superimposed over the actual surgical field. In frame-based stereotaxy, a researcher applies tablet computer-based augmented reality to check for the setting errors of the stereotactic frame, thereby improving the safety of the procedure. Several researchers have reported performing frameless stereotaxy guided by head-mounted-display-based augmented reality that enables surgeons to advance the needle at a more natural posture. These studies have shown that augmented reality can address the limitations of stereotactic neurosurgery. Conversely, they have also revealed the limited accuracy of current augmented reality systems for small targets, which indicates that further development of augmented reality systems is needed.

/pdf/augmented-reality-in-stereotactic-neurosurgery-current-1ffy1hnp.pdf

Makoto Satoh

Papers

Characteristics of a Nonstoichiometric Gd3+δ(Al,Ga)5−δO12:Ce Garnet Scintillator

A 45nm 37.3GOPS/W heterogeneous multi-core SoC

Hot‐Pressing Method to Consolidate Gd3(Al,Ga)5O12:Ce Garnet Scintillator Powder for use in an X‐ray CT Detector

Analysis of two-level data mapping in an HPF compiler for distributed-memory machines

Augmented Reality in Stereotactic Neurosurgery: Current Status and Issues