To cope with environmental fluctuations and to prevent invasion by pathogens, plant metabolism must be flexible and dynamic. Active oxygen species, whose formation is accelerated under stress conditions, must be rapidly processed if oxidative damage is to be averted. The lifetime of active oxygen species within the cellular environment is determined by the antioxidative system, which provides crucial protection against oxidative damage. The antioxidative system comprises numerous enzymes and compounds of low molecular weight. While research into the former has benefited greatly from advances in molecular technology, the pathways by which the latter are synthesized have received comparatively little attention. The present review emphasizes the roles of ascorbate and glutathione in plant metabolism and stress tolerance. We provide a detailed account of current knowledge of the biosynthesis, compartmentation, and transport of these two important antioxidants, with emphasis on the unique insights and advances gained by molecular exploration.

ASCORBATE AND GLUTATHIONE: Keeping Active Oxygen Under Control

O2- oxidizes the [4Fe-4S] clusters of dehydratases, such as aconitase, causing-inactivation and release of Fe(II), which may then reduce H2O2 to OH- +OH.. SODs inhibit such HO. production by scavengingO2-, but Cu, ZnSODs, by virtue of a nonspecific peroxidase activity, may peroxidize spin trapping agents and thus give the appearance of catalyzing OH. production from H2O2. There is a glycosylated, tetrameric Cu, ZnSOD in the extracellular space that binds to acidic glycosamino-glycans. It minimizes the reaction of O2- with NO. E. coli, and other gram negative microorganisms, contain a periplasmic Cu, ZnSOD that may serve to protect against extracellular O2-. Mn(III) complexes of multidentate macrocyclic nitrogenous ligands catalyze the dismutation of O2- and are being explored as potential pharmaceutical agents. SOD-null mutants have been prepared to reveal the biological effects of O2-. SodA, sodB E. coli exhibit dioxygen-dependent auxotrophies and enhanced mutagenesis, reflecting O2(-)-sensitive biosynthetic pathways and DNA damage. Yeast, lacking either Cu, ZnSOD or MnSOD, are oxygen intolerant, and the double mutant was hypermutable and defective in sporulation and exhibited requirements for methionine and lysine. A Cu, ZnSOD-null Drosophila exhibited a shortened lifespan.

Superoxide Radical and Superoxide Dismutases

The relationship between antioxidant activity and antimutagenicity of various tea extracts (green tea, pouchong tea, oolong tea, and black tea) was investigated. All tea extracts exhibited markedly antioxidant activity and reducing power, especially oolong tea, which inhibited 73.6% peroxidation of linoleic acid. Tea extracts exhibited a 65-75% scavenging effect on superoxide at a dose of 1 mg and 30 - 60% scavenging effect on hydrogen peroxide at a dose of 400 microgram. They scavenged 100% hydroxyl radical at a dosage of 4 mg except the black tea. Tea extracts also showed 50 - 70% scavenging effect on alpha, alpha-diphenyl-beta-picrylhydrazyl radical. The antioxidant activity and the scavenging effects on active oxygen decreased in the order semifermented tea > nonfermented tea > fermented tea. Tea extracts showed strong antimutagenic action against five indirect mutagens, i.e., AFB1, Trp-P-1, Glu-P-1, B[a]P, and IQ, especially oolong and pouchong teas. The antioxidant effect of tea extracts was well correlated to their antimutagenicity in some cases but varied with the mutagen and antioxidative properties.

Antioxidant activity of various tea extracts in relation to their antimutagenicity

http://www.biblioteca.uma.es/bbldoc/articulos/16689835.pdf?origin=publication_detail

Antioxidant enzymes and human diseases

Poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation is a post-translational modification of proteins. During this process, molecules of ADP-ribose are added successively on to acceptor proteins to form branched polymers. This modification is transient but very extensive in vivo, as polymer chains can reach more than 200 units on protein acceptors. The existence of the poly(ADP-ribose) polymer was first reported nearly 40 years ago. Since then, the importance of poly(ADP-ribose) synthesis has been established in many cellular processes. However, a clear and unified picture of the physiological role of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation still remains to be established. The total dependence of poly(ADP-ribose) synthesis on DNA strand breaks strongly suggests that this post-translational modification is involved in the metabolism of nucleic acids. This view is also supported by the identification of direct protein-protein interactions involving poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (113 kDa PARP), an enzyme catalysing the formation of poly(ADP-ribose), and key effectors of DNA repair, replication and transcription reactions. The presence of PARP in these multiprotein complexes, in addition to the actual poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation of some components of these complexes, clearly supports an important role for poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation reactions in DNA transactions. Accordingly, inhibition of poly(ADP-ribose) synthesis by any of several approaches and the analysis of PARP-deficient cells has revealed that the absence of poly(ADP-ribosyl)ation strongly affects DNA metabolism, most notably DNA repair. The recent identification of new poly(ADP-ribosyl)ating enzymes with distinct (non-standard) structures in eukaryotes and archaea has revealed a novel level of complexity in the regulation of poly(ADP-ribose) metabolism.

/pdf/poly-adp-ribosyl-ation-reactions-in-the-regulation-of-bcg8wwt2pc.pdf

Poly(adp-ribosyl)ation reactions in the regulation of nuclear functions

The occurrence of superoxide anion in the reaction of reduced phenazine methosulfate and molecular oxygen

Molecular basis for the deficiency in humans of gulonolactone oxidase, a key enzyme for ascorbic acid biosynthesis.

Maternal inheritance of deleted mitochondrial DNA in a family with mitochondrial myopathy.

Ascorbic acid is synthesized by a variety of organisms of the animal and plant kingdoms Among mammals, however, humans, other primates, and guinea pigs cannot exceptionally produce this vitamin, and as a consequence, they are subject to a vitamin C—deficiency disease, scurvy, if the supply of vitamin C from their diet is not sufficient The genetic defect causing the inability to synthesize ascorbic acid in these animals arose as a result of a mutation that had occurred during their evolution, and this trait is currently carried in all individuals of the scurvy-prone species In this sense, scurvy is an unusual type of inborn error of metabolism (Nishikimi and Udenfriend, 1977; Stone, 1967) Besides the above-mentioned scurvy-prone animals, there is a mutant rat strain that suffers from scurvy when fed a vitamin C—deficient diet (Mizushima et al, 1984) In this chapter we will focus on the genetic basis of the incapability of humans, guinea pigs, and the scurvy-prone mutant rat to biosynthesize ascorbic acid In fact, elucidation of the human genetic defect at the gene level has long been a subject of interest for ascorbic acid research We will also deal with the recent studies related to biosynthesis of ascorbic acid, including the terminal enzymes of the biosynthetic pathways of ascorbic acid

Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Ascorbic Acid Biosynthesis

Existence of common homologous elements in the transcriptional regulatory regions of human nuclear genes and mitochondrial gene for the oxidative phosphorylation system.

Morimitsu Nishikimi

Papers

The occurrence of superoxide anion in the reaction of reduced phenazine methosulfate and molecular oxygen

Molecular basis for the deficiency in humans of gulonolactone oxidase, a key enzyme for ascorbic acid biosynthesis.

Maternal inheritance of deleted mitochondrial DNA in a family with mitochondrial myopathy.

Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of Ascorbic Acid Biosynthesis

Existence of common homologous elements in the transcriptional regulatory regions of human nuclear genes and mitochondrial gene for the oxidative phosphorylation system.