because observed behavior is the result of interactions between environmental factors and genes during the extended period of development. Therefore, to better understand expert and exceptional performance, we must require that the account specify the different environmental factors that could selectively promote and facilitate the achievement of such performance. In addition, recent research on expert performance and expertise (Chi, Glaser, & Farr, 1988; Ericsson & Smith, 1991a) has shown that important characteristics of experts' superior performance are acquired through experience and that the effect of practice on performance is larger than earlier believed possible. For this reason, an account of exceptional performance must specify the environmental circumstances, such as the duration and structure of activities, and necessary minimal biological attributes that lead to the acquisition of such characteristics and a corresponding level of performance. An account that explains how a majority of individuals can attain a given level of expert performance might seem inherently unable to explain the exceptional performance of only a small number of individuals. However, if such an empirical account could be empirically supported, then the extreme characteristics of experts could be viewed as having been acquired through learning and adaptation, and studies of expert performance could provide unique insights into the possibilities and limits of change in cognitive capacities and bodily functions. In this article we propose a theoretical framework that explains expert performance in terms of acquired characteristics resulting from extended deliberate practice and that limits the role of innate (inherited) characteristics to general levels of activity and emotionality. We provide empirical support from two new studies and from already published evidence on expert performance in many different domains.

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The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance.

Research in the area of educational technology has often been critiqued for a lack of theoretical grounding. In this article we propose a conceptual framework for educational technology by building on Shulman’s formulation of ‘‘pedagogical content knowledge’’ and extend it to the phenomenon of teachers integrating technology into their pedagogy. This framework is the result of 5 years of work on a program of research focused on teacher professional development and faculty development in higher education. It attempts to capture some of the essential qualities of teacher knowledge required for technology integration in teaching, while addressing the complex, multifaceted, and situated nature of this knowledge. We argue, briefly, that thoughtful pedagogical uses of technology require the development of a complex, situated form of knowledge that we call Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK). In doing so, we posit the complex roles of, and interplay among, three main components of learning environments: content, pedagogy, and technology. We argue that this model has much to offer to discussions of technology integration at multiple levels: theoretical, pedagogical, and methodological. In this article, we describe the theory behind our framework, provide examples of our teaching approach based upon the framework, and illustrate the methodological contributions that have resulted from this work.

/pdf/technological-pedagogical-content-knowledge-a-framework-for-4g4dquqx44.pdf

Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge

Good computer and video games like System Shock 2, Deus Ex, Pikmin, Rise of Nations, Neverwinter Nights, and Xenosaga: Episode 1 are learning machines. They get themselves learned and learned well, so that they get played long and hard by a great many people. This is how they and their designers survive and perpetuate themselves. If a game cannot be learned and even mastered at a certain level, it won't get played by enough people, and the company that makes it will go broke. Good learning in games is a capitalist-driven Darwinian process of selection of the fittest. Of course, game designers could have solved their learning problems by making games shorter and easier, by dumbing them down, so to speak. But most gamers don't want short and easy games. Thus, designers face and largely solve an intriguing educational dilemma, one also faced by schools and workplaces: how to get people, often young people, to learn and master something that is long and challenging--and enjoy it, to boot.

/pdf/what-video-games-have-to-teach-us-about-learning-and-4ye8hcmm33.pdf

What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy

Course Description In this course, we will explore the question of the actual and potential connections between democracy and education. Our focus of attention will be placed on a critical examination of democratic theory and its implications for the civic education roles and contributions of teachers, adult educators, community development practitioners, and community organizers. We will survey and deal critically with a range of competing conceptions of democracy, variously described as classical, republican, liberal, radical, marxist, neomarxist, pragmatist, feminist, populist, pluralist, postmodern, and/or participatory. Using narrative inquiry as a means for illuminating and interpreting contemporary practice, we will analyze the implications of different conceptions of democracy for the practical work of civic education.

Democracy and education.

The purpose of this article is to review basic empirical results from the psychological literature in a way that provides a useful foundation for research on consumer knowledge. A conceptual organization for this diverse literature is provided by two fundamental distinctions. First, consumer expertise is distinguished from product-related experience. Second, five distinct aspects, or dimensions, of expertise are identified: cognitive effort, cognitive structure, analysis, elaboration, and memory. Improvements in the first two dimensions are shown to have general beneficial effects on the latter three. Analysis, elaboration, and memory are shown to have more specific interrelationships. The empirical findings related to each dimension are reviewed and, on the basis of those findings, specific research hypotheses about the effects of expertise on consumer behavior are suggested.

Dimensions of Consumer Expertise

https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1207/s15516709cog0502_2

Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices

Introduction and perspective -- An introduction to Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance : its development, organization, and content / K. Anders Ericsson -- Two approaches to the study of experts' characteristics / Michelene T.H. Chi -- Expertise, talent, and social encouragement / Earl Hunt -- Overview of approaches to the study of expertise : brief historical accounts of theories and methods -- Studies of expertise from psychological perspectives / Paul J. Feltovich, Michael J. Prietula & K. Anders Ericsson -- Educators and expertise : a brief history of theories and models / Ray J. Amirault & Robert K. Branson -- Expert systems : a perspective from computer science / Bruce G. Buchanan, Randall Davis, & Edward A. Feigenbaum -- Professionalization, scientific expertise, and elitism : a sociological perspective / Julia Evetts, Harald A. Mieg, & Ulrike Felt -- Methods for studying the structure of expertise --^

/pdf/the-cambridge-handbook-of-expertise-and-expert-performance-4au7nc4m5g.pdf

The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance

A central argument of this chapter is that there is a common basis for the 
failure of many instructional systems. The claim is that these deficiencies 
in the outcomes of learning are strongly influenced by underlying biases 
and assumptions in the design of instruction that represent the instructional domain and its associated performance demands in an unrealistically 
simplified and well-structured manner. We offer a constructivist theory of 
learning and instruction that emphasizes the real-world complexity and 
ill-structuredness of many knowledge domains. Any effective approach to 
instruction must simultaneously consider several highly intertwined topics, such as:• the constructive nature of understanding; 
• the complex and ill-structured features of many, if not most, knowl-edge domains;• patterns of learning failure; and 
• a theory of learning that addresses known patterns of learning failure.

Cognitive Flexibility, Constructivism, and Hypertext: Random Access Instruction for Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains

Expertise in a complex skill: Diagnosing x-ray pictures.

We propose 10 challenges for making automation components into effective "team players" when they interact with people in significant ways. Our analysis is based on some of the principles of human-centered computing that we have developed individually and jointly over the years, and is adapted from a more comprehensive examination of common ground and coordination.

Paul J. Feltovich

Papers

Categorization and Representation of Physics Problems by Experts and Novices

The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance

Cognitive Flexibility, Constructivism, and Hypertext: Random Access Instruction for Advanced Knowledge Acquisition in Ill-Structured Domains

Expertise in a complex skill: Diagnosing x-ray pictures.

Ten challenges for making automation a "team player" in joint human-agent activity