Showing papers by "Peter M. Gollwitzer published in 2011"

Self-regulation strategies improve self-discipline in adolescents: Benefits of mental contrasting and implementation intentions

Abstract: Adolescents struggle with setting and striving for goals that require sustained self‐discipline. Research on adults indicates that goal commitment is enhanced by mental contrasting (MC), a strategy involving the cognitive elaboration of a desired future with relevant obstacles of present reality. Implementation intentions (II), which identify the action one will take when a goal‐relevant opportunity arises, represent a strategy shown to increase goal attainment when commitment is high. This study tests the effect of mental contrasting combined with implementation intentions (MCII) on successful goal implementation in adolescents. Sixty‐six 2nd‐year high school students preparing to take a high‐stakes exam in the fall of their third year were randomly assigned to complete either a 30‐minute written mental contrasting with implementation intentions intervention or a placebo control writing exercise. Students in the intervention condition completed more than 60% more practice questions than did students in t...

Breaking Habits With Implementation Intentions: A Test of Underlying Processes

Abstract: Implementation intentions specifying the replacement of a habitual response with an alternative response in a critical situation can overrule habits. In three experiments the cognitive effects of such counterhabitual implementation intentions were investigated. Results showed that implementation intentions eliminated the cognitive advantage of the habitual means in the “horse race” with the alternative response. That is, in the control condition, the habitual means was more accessible than the alternative means on encountering the critical situation, but this was no longer the case when implementation intentions were formulated. However, the cognitive advantage of the habitual means was not immediately replaced by an automatic activation of the alternative means. This suggests that formulating counterhabitual implementation intentions increases individuals’ flexibility to choose which behavior to perform in the critical situation but that actual behavior will depart from their habits only to the extent that individuals have strong alternative goal intentions.

Planning promotes goal striving.

Abstract: d etermining the factors that promote successful goal striving is one of the fundamental questions studied by selfregulation and motivation researchers (Bargh, Gollwitzer, & Oettingen, 2010; Gollwitzer & Moskowitz, 1996; Oettingen & Gollwitzer, 2001). A number of theories, and supporting empirical data, suggest that the type of goal chosen and the commitment to that goal are important determinants in whether an individual carries out the behaviors necessary for goal attainment (e.g., Ajzen, 1985; Bandura, 1997; Carver & Scheier, 1998; Elliot, 2008; Locke & Latham, 2006; Molden & Dweck, 2006; Oettingen, Pak, & Schnetter, 2001). Within these models, choosing or accepting a goal or standard is the central act of will in the pursuit of goals. We agree with this contention but argue in this chapter that further acts of will should facilitate goal attainment, in particular, when goal striving is confronted with implemental problems (e.g., difficulties getting started because of failure to use opportunities to do so; sticking to ongoing goal striving in the face of distractions, temptations, and competing goals). Such acts of will can take the form of making plans that specify when, where, and how an instrumental goaldirected response is to be enacted. More specifically, the person may take control over (i.e., selfregulate) goal striving by making if–then plans (i.e., form implementation intentions) that specify an anticipated critical situation and link it to an instrumental goaldirected response.

Perspective taking as a means to overcome motivational barriers in negotiations: when putting oneself into the opponent's shoes helps to walk toward agreements.

Abstract: Previous negotiation research predominantly focused on psychological factors that lead to suboptimal compromises as opposed to integrative agreements. Few studies systematically analyzed factors that impact the emergence of hurtful partial impasses (i.e., nonagreements on part of the issues). The present research investigates negotiators' egoistic motivation as a determinant for the emergence of partial impasses. In addition, the authors seek to demonstrate that perspective taking serves as a powerful tool to avoid impasses and to overcome egoistic impediments. Specifically, it was predicted that within an integrative context perspective-takers succeed to exchange concessions on low- versus high-preference issues (i.e., logroll), thereby increasing their individual profits without inflicting hurtful losses upon their counterparts. Three studies were conducted to test these predictions. Study 1 reveals that whereas negotiators' egoistic motivation increases the risk of partial impasses, perspective taking alleviates this risk. Study 2 demonstrates that this beneficial effect of a perspective-taking mindset is limited to integrative negotiations and does not emerge in a distributive context, in which negotiators are constrained to achieve selfish goals by inflicting hurtful losses on their counterparts. Study 3 confirms the assumption that in an integrative context egoistic perspective-takers overcome the risk of impasses by means of logrolling. The findings of the present studies are discussed with respect to their contribution to research on negotiations, social motivation, and perspective taking.

Pre- Versus Post-Decisional Deliberation and Goal Commitment: The Positive Effects of Defensiveness

Abstract: Building on Gollwitzer’s (1990) mindset theory of action phases, it is proposed that the effects of deliberation on subsequent goal commitment are moderated by people’s pre- versus post-decisional status. A balanced deliberation and impartial assessment of pros and cons is expected to reduce goal commitment in pre-decisional individuals, whereas a partial, defensive deliberation and a focus on the pros should strengthen goal commitment in post-decisional individuals. Indeed, in Study 1, deliberation on the pros and cons of pursuing a focal goal promoted stronger reported goal commitment in participants who had decided to pursue this goal, but reduced goal commitment for people who had not yet made such a decision. In Study 2, the same pattern of results emerged when goal commitment was assessed in terms of planning to act on the goal rather than by mere self-report. Study 3 replicated findings using a different decision status manipulation and an objective measure of commitment. Moreover, it explored the underlying process and provided evidence that it is the defensive focus on the pros of goal pursuit that drives post-decisional deliberation’s strengthening effects on goal commitment. Finally, results of Studies 4 and 5 suggested that the increase in commitment produced by defensive post-decisional deliberation is consequential. It was found to differentially strengthen conflicting behavioral intentions (Study 4), and to drive real-life behavior by promoting goal-directed action (Study 5). Implications for mindset theory, goal commitment theory, and decision making are discussed.

Self-Regulation of Priming Effects on Behavior

Abstract: In three experiments, we tested whether people can protect their ongoing goal pursuits from antagonistic priming effects by using if-then plans (i.e., implementation intentions). In Experiment 1, concept priming did not influence lexical decision time for a critical stimulus when participants had formed if-then plans to make fast responses to that stimulus. In Experiment 2, participants who were primed with a prosocial goal allowed a confederate who asked for help to interrupt their work on a focal task for a longer time if they had merely formed goal intentions to perform well than if they had also formed implementation intentions for concentrating on the task. In Experiment 3, priming the goal of being fast increased driving speed and errors for participants who had formed mere goal intentions to drive only as fast as safety allowed or who had formed no goal intentions, whereas the driving of participants who had formed such goal intentions as well as implementation intentions showed no such priming effects. Our findings indicate that implementation intentions are an effective self-regulatory tool for shielding actions from disruptive concept- or goal-priming effects.

If-Then Plans Benefit Delay of Gratification Performance in Children With and Without ADHD

Abstract: Children with impulse control deficits (i.e., children with ADHD) are known to have special problems with delaying gratifications. As making if-then plans (i.e., forming implementation intentions) has been found to benefit self-control even in individuals whose action control is chronically hampered (e.g., critical samples such as patients with frontal lobe damage, the elderly), we analyzed whether delay of gratification is facilitated in children with and without ADHD who have formed respective implementation intentions. In Study 1, forty-five inpatient children with ADHD (M age = 10.7 years) increased delay of gratification performance after having formed respective implementation intentions. Study 2 replicated this finding in an outpatient sample of children with ADHD (n = 47, M age = 10.3 years) and also in a comparison group of children without ADHD (n = 40, M age = 11.3 years). Results are discussed with respect to their implications for action control in children with ADHD as well as research on implementation intentions and delay of gratification.

If-Then Plans Benefit Executive Functions in Children with ADHD

Abstract: Children with ADHD encounter multiple academic and interpersonal problems presumably due to insufficient executive functions. In two studies we measured executive functions (i.e., shifting, resistance to distraction) and assessed whether children with ADHD can empower these functions by forming implementation intentions (i.e., if-then plans; Gollwitzer, 1999). Children with ADHD made fewer perseverative errors on a shifting task (Study 1) when instructed to make if-then plans. They also benefited from if-then plans in solving math problems that required both working memory and the inhibition of distractions (Study 2). Results concerning implications for research on if-then planning in children with ADHD are discussed.

If-Then Planning Helps School-Aged Children to Ignore Attractive Distractions

Abstract: Can children improve shielding an ongoing task from distractions by if-then planning (ie, by forming implementation inten- tions)? In an experimental study, the situational and personal limits of action control by distraction-inhibiting implementation intentions ("If a distraction comes up, then I will ignore it!") were tested by comparing them to simple goal intentions ("I will ignore distractions!") Goal intentions were sufficient to successfully ignore distractions of low attractiveness In the presence of moderately and highly attractive distractions, as well as a distraction presented out of the children's sight, however, only implementation intentions improved children's task shielding, as indicated by faster response times in an ongoing categorization task and shorter periods of looking at highly attractive distractions presented out of their field of vision These findings held true regardless of the children's temperament and language com- petency Implications for research on planning and developmental research on self-control are discussed

Mental contrasting promotes integrative bargaining

Abstract: Purpose – This paper aims to test the impact of several self‐regulatory strategies on an integrative bargaining task.Design/methodology/approach – Participants were randomly assigned to dyads and negotiated over the sale of a car. Before negotiating, participants were prompted to engage in one of three self‐regulation strategies, based upon fantasy realization theory (FRT): to mentally contrast a successful future agreement with the reality of bargaining, to exclusively elaborate on successful future agreement, or to exclusively elaborate on the reality of bargaining. Those in the control condition merely began the negotiation.Findings – Mentally contrasting a successful future agreement with the reality of bargaining leads dyads to reach the largest and most equitable joint agreements, compared to dyads that elaborate only on successful future agreement, or on the reality of bargaining.Research limitations/implications – Since it was found that mental contrasting promotes integrative agreement, it is imp...

Self-Regulation in Ultimatum Bargaining: Goals and Plans Help Accepting Unfair but Profitable Offers

Abstract: Impulsive responses to ultimatums may cause rejection of unfair offers at a cost to oneself. A possible ameliorating strategy is self-regulation by setting goals and making plans geared toward controlling impulsive responses that may lead to rejection. Two studies test the hypothesis that entering an ultimatum with specific goals and plans (i.e., implementation intentions) will lead to increased acceptances of ultimatums that are unfair but more profitable than rejection. In Experiment 1 participants with a goal intention to stay calm accepted unfair ultimatums more than participants who were not given such a goal. In Experiment 2, we studied participants' reactions to ultimatums that were harder to accept, and found that goal intentions supported with implementation intentions (if-then plans) significantly increased the chance of acceptance, compared with having only goal intentions. Implications of these findings for self-regulation in ultimatum bargaining are discussed.