Attention and choice: a review on eye movements in decision making.

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Managing in a Time of Great Change

Little is known about how culture affects users' perceptions and beliefs after they have adopted an information technology (IT). This study constructed and verified a research model, based on interaction theory and the cultural lens model, that focuses on the relationship between users' cultural profiles and post-adoption beliefs in the context of the mobile Internet. The results of large-scale on-line surveys in Korea, Hong Kong, and Taiwan indicate that four cultural factors-uncertainty avoidance, individualism, contextuality, and time perception-have a significant influence on users' post-adoption perceptions of mobile Internet services.

Culture-Technology Fit: Effects of Cultural Characteristics on the Post-Adoption Beliefs of Mobile Internet Users

Over the past half century, research on human decision making has expanded from a purely behaviorist approach that focuses on decision outcomes, to include a more cognitive approach that focuses on the decision processes that occur prior to the response. This newer approach, known as process tracing, has employed various methods, such as verbal protocols, information search displays, and eye movement monitoring, to identify and track psychological events that occur prior to the response (such as cognitive states, stages, or processes). In the present article, we review empirical studies that have employed eye movement monitoring as a process tracing method in decision making research, and we examine the potential of eye movement monitoring as a process tracing methodology. We also present an experiment that further illustrates the experimental manipulations and analysis techniques that are possible with modern eye tracking technology. In this experiment, a gaze-contingent display was used to manipulate stimulus exposure during decision making, which allowed us to test a specific hypothesis about the role of eye movements in preference decisions (the Gaze Cascade model; Shimojo, Simion, Shimojo, & Scheier, 2003). The results of the experiment did not confirm the predictions of the Gaze Cascade model, but instead support the idea that eye movements in these decisions reflect the screening and evaluation of decision alternatives. In summary, we argue that eye movement monitoring is a valuable tool for capturing decision makers’ information search behaviors, and that modern eye tracking technology is highly compatible with other process tracing methods such as retrospective verbal protocols and neuroimaging techniques, and hence it is poised to be an integral part of the next wave of decision research.

http://psych.utoronto.ca/users/reingold/publications/PDFs/2011.Glaholt.Reingold.EyeMovementMonitoringasaProcessTracingMethodology.pdf

Eye Movement Monitoring as a Process Tracing Methodology in Decision Making Research

Examining the moderating effect of inconsistent reviews and its gender differences on consumers' online shopping decision

The framing effect, proposed by Tversky and Kahneman [A. Tversky, D. Kahneman, The framing of decisions and the psychology of choice, Science 211 (4481) (1981) 453-458.], refers to the phenomenon that varying the presentations of the same problem can systematically affect the choice one makes. In this research we have reviewed a literature related to the framing effect and neurobiological studies of emotion. This review leads us to conceptualize that framing may induce emotion, which in turn impinges on the level of cognitive effort that subsequently shapes the framing effect. We then employ the eye-tracking technology to explore the differences in cognitive effort under both positive and negative framing conditions. Among the four experimental problems, disease and gambling problems are found to exhibit the framing effect, while the kittens' therapy and the plant problem do not. In analyzing the level of eye movement for the four problems, we find that cognitive effort asymmetry plays a critical role in the production of the framing effect. That is, for the two problems that display the framing effect, subjects expend more effort in the negative framing condition than they do in the positive, yet the framing effect persists, indicating that they cannot change their cognitive inertia despite this increase in cognitive effort. The finding has potential implications for the design of information presentation to facilitate decision making.

An exploratory study of cognitive effort involved in decision under Framing-an application of the eye-tracking technology

Effects of music tempo and task difficulty on multi-attribute decision-making: An eye-tracking approach

The effects of attention inertia on advertisements on the WWW

The role of peripheral flash advertisements in decision making as a distractor or a source of arousal was examined. Participants were asked to perform multiattribute decision making in a display environment with or without banners of advertisement flashing occasionally in the peripheral region of the display. The flash banners accelerated the speed of decision making, although the participants rarely made eye movements in response to the banners or fixated their eyes on them. It was interesting to note that the participants' pupil sizes increased with the presence of flash banners. These findings suggest that rather than distracting participants' attention, flash banners appear to elevate the general level of arousal of the participants, which in turn led to making faster on-line decisions. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

The effect of Flash banners on multiattribute decision making: Distractor or source of arousal?

A new generation of eye trackers shows us a promising alternative approach to tracing decision processes beyond the popular computerized-information-board approach. In order to exploit the eye-movement data, this study examined the validity of the Needleman-Wunsch algorithm (NWA) to characterize the decision process, and proposed an NWA-based classification method to predict which typical strategy an empirical search behavior might belong to. An eye-tracking based experiment was conducted. Our results showed that the resemblance score by NWA conformed to the assumption that the pair of information search behaviors based on the same strategy should have the closest resemblance. Moreover, with respect to our NWA-based classification method, our result showed that its overall prediction accuracy, hit-ratio, in identifying underlying strategies achieved 88%, significantly much higher than that gained from chance. On the whole, the combination of eye-fixation data and our NWA-based classification method is qualified.

Rong-Fuh Day

Papers

An exploratory study of cognitive effort involved in decision under Framing-an application of the eye-tracking technology

Effects of music tempo and task difficulty on multi-attribute decision-making: An eye-tracking approach

The effects of attention inertia on advertisements on the WWW

The effect of Flash banners on multiattribute decision making: Distractor or source of arousal?

Examining the validity of the Needleman-Wunsch algorithm in identifying decision strategy with eye-movement data