Showing papers in "Psychology & Marketing in 2006"
TL;DR: In this article, a cross-cultural comparative study was conducted on a sample of real consumers at coffee chain stores in Shanghai, China, and Taipei, Taiwan, and the findings revealed that individual as well as shared experiences work through brand association, brand personality, brand attitude, and brand image to shape a consumer-brand relationship.
Abstract: This research aims to develop a framework of consumer–brand relationship by taking an experiential view. In this article, the authors report a cross-cultural comparative study that was conducted on a sample of real consumers at coffee chain stores in Shanghai, China, and Taipei, Taiwan. The findings reveal that individual as well as shared experiences work through brand association, brand personality, brand attitude, and brand image to shape a consumer–brand relationship. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
421 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined how two cues frequently found on the Internet, that is, sales volume and customer reviews, influence consumer on-line product choices, and the experimental results revealed that subjects used the choices and evaluations of others as cues for making their own choices.
Abstract: Previous research has shown that people are influenced by others when making decisions. This work presents three studies examining herding in product choices on the Internet. The first two studies addressed how two cues frequently found on the Internet, that is, sales volume and customer reviews, influence consumer on-line product choices. The third study examined the relative effectiveness of two recommendation sources. The experimental results revealed that subjects used the choices and evaluations of others as cues for making their own choices. However, herding effects are offset significantly by negative comments from others. Additionally, the recommendations of other consumers influence the choices of subjects more effectively than recommendations from an expert. Finally, implications of this work are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. The emerging on-line economy provides consumers with easy access to numerous choices. Unlike traditional face-to-face retail environments, in which products can be seen and touched and customers can consult salespersons, transactions occur in a computer-mediated environment that provides no opportunities for experiencing a product or for face-toface consultation before making a purchase. Facing numerous options, consumers may delay their purchases or make their choices by a simple
410 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the trade-offs in decision-making for sustainable technologies are discussed in the context of sustainable technologies, and the ESRC Sustainable Technologies Programme funded project is described.
Abstract: ESRC Sustainable Technologies Programme funded project: “Trade-offs in decision-making for sustainable technologies” (award RES-388-25-0001)
275 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated changes that e-coupons bring to consumers' coupon usage, and they developed and estimated models of coupon-usage intention based on the theory of reasoned action or on planned behavior.
Abstract: To investigate changes that e-coupons bring to consumers' coupon usage, the authors of this article developed and estimated models of coupon-usage intention. The models are based on the theory of reasoned action or the theory of planned behavior. Results show that the theory of planned behavior explains e-coupon usage intention better than the theory of reasoned action. On the other hand, the intention to use traditional coupons is effectively explained by the theory of reasoned action. Both perceived behavioral control and attitude toward Internet searching have significant effects on the intention to use e-coupons. Also, heavy users of e-coupons are different from those of traditional coupons. Light users of traditional coupons have relatively high intention to use e-coupons if they have more access to e-coupons. On the other hand, heavy users of traditional coupons have relatively low intention to use e-coupons if they have less access to them. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
218 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the effect of guilt on charitable-donation intention and actual donations was mediated by a sense of responsibility, and the presence of others enhanced the feeling of responsibility to behave prosocially.
Abstract: This research was conducted to assess how guilt appeals operate in soliciting charitable donations. It was hypothesized that a sense of responsibility would enhance the effectiveness of charitable guilt appeals, thus leading to larger charitable donations. It was also hypothesized that the presence of others would make salient a prosocial norm, thus increasing a sense of responsibility to help. Two laboratory experiments were conducted to test these hypotheses. The effect of guilt on charitable-donation intention and actual donations was mediated by a sense of responsibility. Additionally, the presence of others enhanced the sense of responsibility to behave prosocially. These findings have implications for the design of charitable-donation campaigns. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
213 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated initial trust formation in Internet shopping from the perspective of the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) by conducting a 2 2 factorial laboratory experiment and found that display of third-party seals and product information quality positively affects consumers' trust toward an e-tailer through assurance perception and result demonstrability.
Abstract: This study investigates initial trust formation in Internet shopping from the perspective of the elaboration likelihood model (ELM) by conducting a 2 2 factorial laboratory experiment. Based on data collected from 160 respondents, the results indicate that display of third-party seals and product information quality positively affects consumers’ trust toward an e-tailer through assurance perception and result demonstrability, respectively. Besides, one’s product involvement and trait anxiety play moderating roles. As predicted in ELM, consumers with high involvement and low anxiety build their trust via central route exclusively, whereas consumers with low involvement or high anxiety build their trust via peripheral route exclusively. The results suggest that customizing the persuasive arguments for different consumers is a critical strategy for initial on-line trust building. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
202 citations
TL;DR: This article found that participants whose explicit and implicit preferences regarding generic food products and well-known food brands were incongruent were more likely to choose the implicitly preferred brand over the explicitly preferred one when choices were made under time pressure.
Abstract: Recent theories in social psychology assume that people may have two different attitudes toward an object at the same time—one that is explicit and corresponds with deliberative behavior, and one that is implicit and corresponds with spontaneous behavior. The research presented in this article tested this assumption in the consumer domain with an experimental approach. Participants whose explicit and implicit preferences regarding generic food products and well-known food brands were incongruent were more likely to choose the implicitly preferred brand over the explicitly preferred one when choices were made under time pressure. The opposite was the case when they had ample time to make their choice. On the basis of these results, the discussion stresses the importance of impulsive behavior and implicit measures for research in the area of consumer behavior. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
200 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors provide a clear framework within which to delineate the relationship between flow and involvement, and thus develop a better theoretical basis that incorporates the flow construct into Internet marketing.
Abstract: Flow, a construct borrowed from reference disciplines, has been proposed as the central process in Web navigation. However, when flow is applied directly to the context of marketing, it suffers from conceptual ambiguity and overlap with the popular marketing construct, involvement. The present study aims to provide a clear framework within which to delineate the relationship between flow and involvement, and thus develop a better theoretical basis that incorporates the flow construct into Internet marketing. This study first distinguishes explicitly between flow, enduring involvement, and situational involvement. It then operationalizes these constructs with the use of customary measures to disclose their unique and common characteristics. Finally, a second-order confirmatory factor analysis allowing measurement errors is used to identify explicitly the tripartite relationship between the three constructs. The conceptual and operational implications are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
169 citations
TL;DR: This article explored the potential for advancing understanding of brand personality through a circumplex model derived from the fields of social and personality psychology and interpersonal psychiatry, which can assist academics and practitioners in understanding the brand personality concept.
Abstract: With the proliferation of products and brands in the marketplace, brand personality has emerged as an important means of brand differentiation and thus of increasing consumer preference. However, little research has investigated this important construct, with the significant exceptions of Aaker's (1997) work, which is based on a factoranalytical approach. In response to the limitations of the factor approach to brand personality, this study explores the potential for advancing understanding of brand personality through a circumplex model derived from the fields of social and personality psychology and interpersonal psychiatry. The model is based on relationships between interpersonal personality traits or emotions and can assist academics and practitioners in understanding the brand personality concept. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
168 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a conceptual framework that considers the antecedents of switching barriers and overall satisfaction, and their roles as drivers of customer retention in on-line settings is proposed.
Abstract: This article formulates and empirically tests a conceptual framework that considers the antecedents of switching barriers and overall satisfaction, and their roles as drivers of customer retention in on-line settings. To test the proposed hypotheses, structural equation modeling based on data obtained from a large on-line retailing store in Taiwan is used. The results suggest that perceived switching costs and community building exert the greatest impact on repurchase intentions through switching barriers and overall satisfaction. Furthermore, relational orientations significantly moderate the link between switching barriers and repurchase intentions. Finally, the theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
166 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a cognitive, hierarchical decision-making approach was used to study the web-consumption behavior of adolescents from a cognitive and hierarchical decision making perspective, and two a priori domains of Web consumption (utilitarian and hedonic) were confirmed.
Abstract: This study addresses the Web-consumption behavior of adolescents from a cognitive, hierarchical decision-making perspective. Using a structural equation analysis technique on data collected from high school students, two a priori domains of Web consumption (utilitarian and hedonic) were confirmed. The utilitarian and hedonic domains of Web consumption were influenced directly by innovativeness and indirectly by the personal values of the adolescents. A theoretical discussion based on the results and the implications of these results are presented for the benefit of youth practitioners, educators, parents, and social marketers. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, a scale to measure active empathetic listening (AEL) of salespeople is presented, where traditional active listening is combined with empathy to achieve a higher form of listening.
Abstract: This article presents a scale to measure active empathetic listening (AEL) of salespeople. AEL is defined as a form of listening practiced by salespeople in which traditional active listening is combined with empathy to achieve a higher form of listening. The AEL scale is composed of three dimensions: sensing, processing, and responding. Itemgeneration procedures and the results of three empirical studies are presented. Study 1 establishes that the item set is suitable for differentiating between effective and ineffective listeners from the point of view of customers. Study 2 determines that the item set is suitable for use by self-report of salespeople, establishes that it conforms to the three theoretical dimensions, and that it possesses convergent validity. Study 3 further refines the item set, confirms the dimensionality of the scale, and establishes that the scale possesses construct validity in the form of discriminant and nomological validity. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: This article examined the effects of a brand ally at different levels of cognitive elaboration and message argument strength, and found that the brand ally serves as an endorser of the primary brand in two key ways.
Abstract: A consistent finding in brand-alliance research is that a well-known, reputable brand ally improves consumers' evaluation of an unknown brand. The authors contribute to this research by examining the effects of a brand ally at different levels of cognitive elaboration and message argument strength. Results suggest that the brand ally serves as an endorser of the primary brand in two key ways. When cognitive elaboration is low and the ad contains strong arguments, the ally serves as an endorser. On the other hand, the presence of a reputable ally is an information cue when cognitive elaboration is high and the ad contains weak arguments. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined whether selfregulatory goals addressed in advertising claims influence product preferences and category-brand associations and found that consumers were more likely to prefer products presented in an advertisement with a claim compatible with the experimentally induced focus.
Abstract: Two experiments examined whether selfregulatory goals addressed in advertising claims influence product preferences and category– brand associations. Experiment 1 provided evidence for the hypothesis that the fit between an advertising claim and consumers' regulatory focus has an impact on product preferences. Participants were more likely to prefer products presented in an advertisement with a claim compatible with the experimentally induced focus. Experiment 2 demonstrated that regulatory focus also has an impact on category– brand associations. Category–brand associations were stronger when the claim of a target brand was compatible with the regulatory focus at the time category–brand associations were measured. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors investigated the influence of cultural differences in crowd-related issues in a crowded hedonic situation and found that Middle Eastern respondents perceive both a lower level of density and appreciate crowded situations more than their North American counterparts.
Abstract: Most of the research dealing with consumer–consumer interactions emphasizes the negative consequences of sharing the service experience with other consumers. Crowding, in particular, represents one of the important environmental factors affecting consumers' retail experience. However, recent studies in the context of hedonic services (e.g., amusement parks, concerts, etc.) have mentioned that crowds may potentially enhance consumers' service experience. The present study aims at demonstrating the presence of these positive consumer responses in a crowded hedonic situation, while investigating the influence of cultural differences in crowd-related issues. With the use of consumers from different cultures (North America and the Middle East), reactions to similarly crowded situations in a hedonic situation are compared. Results suggest that Middle Eastern respondents perceive both a lower level of density and appreciate crowded situations more than their North American counterparts. Potential explanations are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: The authors describes advances in research confirming own attitudes and personal meaning and suggests the need for applying multiple methods to overcome the fundamental attribution error, inherent cultural prejudices, and the general bias toward self-fabrication.
Abstract: Naive subjective personal introspection includes the failure to recognize the confirmability of one's own attitudes and personal meanings learned explicitly from self-examining such topics and explaining one's own behavior. Unconscious/conscious theory of behavior explanation follows from unifying the research on unintended thought–behavior with folk explanations of behavior. This article describes advances in research confirming own attitudes and personal meaning and suggests the need for applying multiple methods to overcome the fundamental attribution error, inherent cultural prejudices, and the general bias toward self-fabrication. The discussion is valuable for achieving a deep understanding of how customers think, advancing from subjective to confirmatory personal introspection, and understanding the need to apply research tools useful for enlightening knowledge and overcoming the inherent bias within subjective personal introspection. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, individual differences in personal relationship attachment style can be used to predict the likely success of consumer relationships, and the success of consumption versus nonconsumption relationships can be explained by the effect of attachment style on the individual's perception of qualities of the relationship.
Abstract: An individual's tendencies in purely personal relationships seem to lead to related tendencies in consumer relationships. The following article presents a study that illustrates how individual differences in personal relationship attachment style can be used to predict the likely success of consumer relationships. In addition, it illustrates how the success of consumption versus nonconsumption relationships can be explained by the effect of attachment style on the individual's perception of qualities of the relationship. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: This article examined the effects of endorser ethnicity and product country of origin on consumer responses toward ad and brand, and investigate the moderating role of utilitarian versus hedonic product type.
Abstract: Two experiments examine the effects of endorser ethnicity and product country of origin on consumer responses toward ad and brand, and investigate the moderating role of utilitarian versus hedonic product type. In Experiment 1, for utilitarian products, participants showed more favorable responses when the endorser's ethnicity was incongruent with the product's country of origin compared to when it was congruent, supporting an attribution-theory explanation. For hedonic products, however, participants preferred ads that featured an endorser whose ethnicity matched their own, irrespective of the product's country of origin. In Experiment 2, building on the attribution explanation, two endorsers of different ethnicities generated more favorable responses than two of the same ethnicity. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, the interaction of affect and cognition was explored as four types of processor groups (high affect/low cognition, low affect/high cognition, high affect high cognition, and low affect low cognition) and investigated in terms of responses to a visual stimulus, a verbal stimulus, and a combination visual/verbal stimulus.
Abstract: The interaction of affect and cognition was explored as four types of processor groups (high affect/low cognition, low affect/high cognition, high affect/high cognition, and low affect/low cognition) and investigated in terms of responses to a visual stimulus, a verbal stimulus, and a combination visual/verbal stimulus. This exploratory investigation suggests that high-affect individuals (affective processors) respond more favorably to a visual ad than the other groups, and individuals high in both affect and cognition (combined processors) respond more favorably to a combination visual/verbal ad. Theoretical and managerial implications as well as directions for future research are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: The traditional seven steps of personal selling have remained virtually unchanged since the early 1900s as mentioned in this paper and the actual roles and duties of salespeople have pushed far into customer relationship management (CRM).
Abstract: The traditional seven steps of personal selling have remained virtually unchanged since the early 1900s. Meanwhile, the actual roles and duties of salespeople have pushed far into customer relationship management (CRM). Psychologically and professionally, salespeople need greater empowerment for their expanding CRM responsibilities. However, empowerment is a complex process requiring several individual, managerial, and organizational changes for successful implementation. As part of the empowerment process for its salespeople, companies need to provide supporting structures, processes, and incentives for customer-oriented behavior. At the same time, the Internet and other telecommunications advances in the macroenvironment are accelerating empowerment changes in personal selling—mainly on the customer side of the exchange. To effectively and efficiently carry out their growing yet still poorly defined CRM roles, salespeople need to be comprehensively empowered, trained, motivated, and rewarded. Companies that most effectively empower their salespeople should reap substantial rewards in profitability and loyalty from both their salespeople and customers. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined four components of the consumer vanity construct: appearance concern, appearance perception, achievement concern, and achievement perception, and provided a rigorous cross-cultural validation test of the vanity scale.
Abstract: Given the unmistakable trend toward a more integrated global economy and the tremendous impact of consumer vanity on demand for countless goods and services, there exists a need for more cross-cultural research on the important psychological construct known as consumer vanity (Netemeyer, Burton, & Lichtenstein, 1995). This article examines four components of the vanity construct: appearance concern, appearance perception, achievement concern, and achievement perception. To test the vanity construct cross-culturally, a survey was undertaken in the United States and China. This article illustrates the use of the comprehensive analytical framework proposed by Steenkamp and Baumgartner (1998) to assess measurement invariance in cross-cultural consumer research. The results provided a rigorous cross-cultural validation test of the vanity scale that has implications for both academics and practitioners in cross-cultural consumer research and marketing. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: The Need for Cognition Scale (VCS) as discussed by the authors has been found to have four dimensions: enjoyment of cognitive stimulation, preference for complexity, commitment of cognitive effort, and desire for understanding.
Abstract: Based on evidence presented for the Need for Cognition Scale in its original and abbreviated versions, users of the instrument assume its unidimensionality. In three exploratory studies, maximum-likelihood factor analysis reveals the presence of multiple dimensions in both forms of the scale. Four dimensions—enjoyment of cognitive stimulation, preference for complexity, commitment of cognitive effort, and desire for understanding —emerged with some consistency across samples and were found to be fairly resistant to changes in the polarity of scale items and to explain differentially consumer response to advertisements. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated whether customer satisfaction would be contingent upon the importance of the service and found that this was not the case, and suggested that by providing customers a choice of service recovery options, salespeople can augment customers' sense of control and ultimately their satisfaction with the service recovery and the overall service transaction.
Abstract: Service failures and consequent recoveries have been identified as a critical determinant of customer retention. Hence, effective service recovery programs warrant further exploration. In particular, with the current emphasis on relationship selling, salespeople should learn how to improvise to serve their customers effectively, including solving problems when service failure occurs. Therefore, alternatives to current common practices in industry should be investigated. The results of the present study suggest that by providing customers a choice of service recovery options, salespeople can augment customers' sense of control and ultimately their satisfaction with the service recovery and the overall service transaction. The investigation also proposed that customer satisfaction would be contingent upon the importance of the service. However, study findings revealed that this was not the case. Implications of the findings are also discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: This article found that automatic preferences based on lower-order affective processes have a greater impact on choice when people focus on their affective response to choice options (affective focus) than when they try to find reasons for their preferences (cognitive focus).
Abstract: The authors assumed that automatic preferences based on lower-order affective processes have a greater impact on choice when people focus on their affective response to choice options (affective focus) than when they try to find reasons for their preferences (cognitive focus). They further supposed that the impact of the focus during decision making is less important when the cognitive resources of consumers are constrained. In an experiment, participants had to choose between two options while the cognitive or affective focus and processing resources were manipulated. Measures of automatic preferences correlated with choice under an affective, but not under a cognitive, focus. In contrast to expectations, this effect of focus was not moderated by the manipulation of processing resources. Interest-ingly, the automatic measures contributed to the prediction of choice under an affective focus independently and apart from self-report measures. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, the influence of attitude toward the parent brand and attitude towards the extension ad on brand extension evaluation was investigated, and it was shown that as perceived congruity between the extension and parent brand decreases, the influence on brand-extension evaluation decreases.
Abstract: This research investigates the influence of two affective cues, namely, attitude toward the parent brand and attitude toward the extension ad, on brand-extension evaluation. Results show that as perceived congruity between the extension and the parent brand decreases, the influence of attitude toward the parent brand on brand-extension evaluation decreases, but the influence of attitude toward the extension ad increases. The impact of the two affective cues also appears to be moderated by an individual's need for cognition. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, a self-regulatory model of consumer consideration set formation is employed as a basis of market structure, and it is shown that consumers regulate their behavior according to goals at different levels of their goal hierarchies.
Abstract: Current models of market structure are descriptive in nature and lack theoretical grounding in consumer behavior. Such grounding is especially needed in the specification of marketing strategies. A self-regulatory model of consumer consideration-set formation will be employed as a basis of market structure in this article. The authors propose and show that consumers regulate their behavior according to goals at different levels of their goal hierarchies, which in turn determine brand consideration. Differences in the salience of goals at different hierarchical levels lead to differences in the composition of consideration sets. It is precisely these individual differences in brand consideration that determine the structure of a market. The analysis of consumers’ goal hierarchies therefore answers, in part, the question of why a market has a certain structure. Hypotheses on brand consideration and the role of system- and principle-level goals are tested on a sample of 1,018 consumers of automobiles. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors classify an advertisement as an extended symbolic message (ESM) when the ad's subject and message are presented in a non-literal format and compare the advertising effectiveness of the ESM with that of a literally equivalent message (LEM).
Abstract: The authors classify an advertisement as an extended symbolic message (ESM) when the ad's subject and message are presented in a nonliteral format. The study compares the advertising effectiveness of the ESM with that of a literally equivalent message (LEM) when the ESM contains either a salient cue (Experiment 1) or subtle cue (Experiment 2) to a nonliteral interpretation. The results indicate that the audience's need for cognition moderates the effectiveness of the ESM. In comparison with an LEM, exposure to the ESM that contained a salient cue resulted in fewer counterarguments and a more favorable attitude toward the ad and brand among high-NFC subjects in experiment 1. These results were replicated in experiment 2 among high-NFC subjects who successfully comprehended the non-literal subject of the ESM that contained a subtle cue. The implications of these results and directions for future research are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, a cross-cultural examination of the ideal self-image of women in terms of health and beauty is presented, and the results show that women identify the ideal eye and hair colors for health and attractiveness.
Abstract: This study is a cross-cultural examination of the ideal self-image of women in terms of health and beauty. The match-up between two advertising beauty types (possible advertising presenters) and female consumers' ideal health and beauty images in terms of wanting to look like a specific model were tested with 750 female respondents from five European cities. The respondents also identified the ideal eye and hair colors for health and beauty. This quantitative study revealed cross-cultural variation in ideal self-image in terms of healthy and beautiful beauty types. International advertisers need to understand the important, contemporary, cultural characteristics of an ideal beauty type in terms of healthy or beautiful before developing standardized advertising communicating such appeals. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors proposed a community paradigm to provide a holistic view of gift giving and found that, on the Internet, social networks of relationships cohere into gift-giving communities that influence the purchasing of gifts.
Abstract: To date, the marketing literature on gift giving has focused on two approaches or paradigms—economic and relational exchange. This study adopts a different perspective, proposing a community paradigm to provide a holistic view of gift giving. The data (based on 20 in-depth interviews and 2 group interviews) suggest that, on the Internet, social networks of relationships cohere into gift-giving communities that influence the purchasing of gifts. Findings about online gift giving are presented according to three community themes: (a) shared rituals and traditions, (b) shared values, and (c) shared responsibilities. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
TL;DR: The role of peripheral flash advertisements in decision making as a distractor or a source of arousal was examined in this paper, where participants were asked to perform multiattribute decision making in a display environment with or without banners of advertisement flashing occasionally in the peripheral region of the display.
Abstract: The role of peripheral flash advertisements in decision making as a distractor or a source of arousal was examined. Participants were asked to perform multiattribute decision making in a display environment with or without banners of advertisement flashing occasionally in the peripheral region of the display. The flash banners accelerated the speed of decision making, although the participants rarely made eye movements in response to the banners or fixated their eyes on them. It was interesting to note that the participants' pupil sizes increased with the presence of flash banners. These findings suggest that rather than distracting participants' attention, flash banners appear to elevate the general level of arousal of the participants, which in turn led to making faster on-line decisions. © 2006 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.