Showing papers by "Sara Kiesler published in 2007"

Applying Common Identity and Bond Theory to Design of Online Communities

Abstract: Online communities depend upon the commitment and voluntary participation of their members. Community design — site navigation, community structure and features, and organizational policies — is critical in this regard. Community design affects how people can interact, the information they receive about one another and the community, and how they can participate in community activities. We argue that the constraints and opportunities inherent in online community design influence how people become attached to the community and whether they are willing to expend effort on its behalf. We examine two theories of group attachment and link these theories with design decisions for online communities. Common identity theory makes predictions about the causes and consequences of people's attachment to the group as a whole. Common bond theory makes predictions about the causes and consequences of people's attachment to individual group members. We review causes of common identity and common bond, and show how they ...

The ideal elf: identity exploration in World of Warcraft.

Abstract: In this study, we examine the identity exploration possibilities presented by online multiplayer games in which players use graphics tools and character-creation software to construct an avatar, or character. We predicted World of Warcraft players would create their main character more similar to their ideal self than the players themselves were. Our results support this idea; a sample of players rated their character as having more favorable attributes that were more favorable than their own self-rated attributes. This trend was stronger among those with lower psychological well-being, who rated themselves comparatively lower than they rated their character. Our results suggest that the game world allows players the freedom to create successful virtual selves regardless of the constraints of their actual situation.

Community Effort in Online Groups: Who Does the Work and Why?

Abstract: As in any social organization, people need to invest effort in the health of their online groups. Listservs and other such groups need people to maintain the technology infrastructure, carry out social management tasks, and recruit new members. Members must read and contribute to discussion. Here, we ask why people do this. In many online groups, preexisting social ties and material benefits for contributions are weak or nonexistent. In this chapter, we consider how the formal leadership role, personal and community benefits, and community characteristics influence the effort members put into helping their online groups. Results from a survey of Internet listserv owners and other members suggest that though owners, who have a formal leadership role, do more of the effortful community building work than do regular members, other members also take on some of the work. Moreover, members who value different benefits are likely to contribute to the development on an online community in different ways.

Storytelling alice motivates middle school girls to learn computer programming

Abstract: We describe Storytelling Alice, a programming environment that introduces middle school girls to computer programming as a means to the end of creating 3D animated stories. Storytelling Alice supports story creation by providing 1) a set of high-level animations, that support the use of social characters who can interact with one another, 2) a collection of 3D characters and scenery designed to spark story ideas, and 3) a tutorial that introduces users to writing Alice programs using story-based examples. In a study comparing girls' experiences learning to program using Storytelling Alice and a version of Alice without storytelling support (Generic Alice), we found that users of Storytelling Alice and Generic Alice were equally successful at learning basic programming constructs. Participants found Storytelling Alice and Generic Alice equally easy to use and entertaining. Users of Storytelling Alice were more motivated to program; they spent 42% more time programming, were more than 3 times as likely to sneak extra time to work on their programs, and expressed stronger interest in future use of Alice than users of Generic Alice.

Comparing a computer agent with a humanoid robot

Abstract: HRI researchers interested in social robots have made large investments in humanoid robots. There is still sparse evidence that peoples' responses to robots differ from their responses to computer agents, suggesting that agent studies might serve to test HRI hypotheses. To help us understand the difference between people's social interactions with an agent and a robot, we experimentally compared people's responses in a health interview with (a) a computer agent projected either on a computer monitor or life-size on a screen, (b) a remote robot projected life-size on a screen, or (c) a collocated robot in the same room. We found a few behavioral and large attitude differences across these conditions. Participants forgot more and disclosed least with the collocated robot, next with the projected remote robot, and then with the agent. They spent more time with the collocated robot and their attitudes were most positive toward that robot. We discuss tradeoffs for HRI research of using collocated robots, remote robots, and computer agents as proxies of robots.

Expertise and Collaboration in the Geographically Dispersed Organization

Abstract: The knowledge-based view of the firm has led to greater theoretical interest in how organizations integrate knowledge resources embedded in their employees' expertise. We examine the knowledge-integration problem in geographically dispersed professional organizations in which experts work in project teams. From consideration of coordination costs and local ties, we argue that (1) the organization will develop specialized expertise within local sites, (2) managers avoid crossing geographic boundaries to staff a project unless bringing on a distant expert helps meet customer requirements, (3) cross-site connections help less-needed members participate in dispersed projects, and (4) dispersed projects that have a better match of expertise generate higher net earnings. We tested these hypotheses using archival data and interviews in a geographically dispersed professional service organization. We examined how managers staffed 493 local and dispersed projects over a five-year period, and the financial outcomes of these projects. Managers created dispersed projects comparatively rarely; they did so when scarce expertise from other sites was needed to match customers' project requirements. Dispersed projects garnered higher net earnings than local projects when there was a better match of scarce expertise to project requirements. However, a curvilinear relationship was observed, such that a very high percentage of dispersed experts on a project increased coordination costs and reduced net earnings. Our study extends the knowledge-based view by showing how considerations of coordination costs and social ties affect knowledge integration in the geographically dispersed organization. The study also shows, empirically, the managerial trade-offs that encourage or discourage dispersed collaboration.

Watching together: integrating text chat with video

Abstract: Watching video online is becoming increasingly popular, and new video streaming technologies have the potential to transform video watching from a passive, isolating experience into an active, socially engaging experience. However, the viability of an active social experience is unclear: both chatting and watching video require attention, and may interfere with one another and detract from the experience. In this paper, we empirically examine the activity of chatting while watching video online. We examine how groups of friends and strangers interact, and find that chat has a positive influence on social relationships, and people chat despite being distracted. We discuss the benefits and opportunities provided by mixing chat and video, uncover some of the attentional and social challenges inherent in this combination of media, and provide guidance for structuring the viewing experience.

Talk amongst yourselves: inviting users to participate in online conversations

Abstract: Many small online communities would benefit from increased diversity or activity in their membership. Some communities run the risk of dying out due to lack of participation. Others struggle to achieve the critical mass necessary for diverse and engaging conversation. But what tools are available to these communities to increase participation? Our goal in this research was to spark contributions to the movielens.org discussion forum, where only 2% of the members write posts. We developed personalized invitations, messages designed to entice users to visit or contribute to the forum. In two field experiments, we ask (1) if personalized invitations increase activity in a discussion forum, (2) how the choice of algorithm for intelligently choosing content to emphasize in the invitation affects participation, and (3) how the suggestion made to the user affects their willingness to act. We find that invitations lead to increased participation, as measured by levels of reading and posting. More surprisingly, we find that invitations emphasizing the social nature of the discussion forum increase user activity, while invitations emphasizing other details of the discussion are less successful.

Connected Giving: Ordinary People Coordinating Disaster Relief on the Internet

Abstract: The Internet is widely valued for distributing control over information to a lateral network of individuals, but it is not clear how these networks can most effectively organize themselves. This paper describes the distributed networks of volunteers that emerged online following Hurricane Katrina. Online communities responded to the disaster by facilitating the distribution of donated goods from ordinary people directly to hurricane survivors. These "connected giving" groups faced several challenges: establishing authority within the group, providing relevant information, developing trust in one another, and sustaining the group over time. Two forms of computer-mediated connected giving were observed: small blog communities and large forums. Small blog communities used a centralized authority structure that was more immediately successful in managing information and developing trust, but over time, blog communities were difficult to sustain. Larger and more decentralized forums had greater difficulties focusing the community's communication and developing trust but sustained themselves over a long period of time

Improving the match between callers and receivers: A study on the effect of contextual information on cell phone interruptions

Abstract: A problem with the location-free nature of cell phones is that callers have difficulty predicting receivers' states, leading to inappropriate calls. One promising solution involves helping callers decide when to interrupt by providing them contextual information about receivers. We tested the effectiveness of different kinds of contextual information by measuring the degree of agreement between receivers' desires and callers' decisions. In a simulation, five groups of participants played the role of 'Callers', choosing between making calls or leaving messages, and a sixth group played the role of 'Receivers', choosing between receiving calls or receiving messages. Callers were provided different contextual information about Receivers' locations, their cell phones' ringer state, the presence of others, or no information at all. Callers provided with contextual information made significantly more accurate decisions than those without it. Our results suggest that different contextual information generates different kinds of improvements: more appropriate interruptions or better avoidance of inappropriate interruptions. We discuss the results and implications for practice in the light of other important considerations, such as privacy and technological simplicity.

Introduction to the Special Issue: Online Communities

Abstract: The Internet has impelled scholars to expand their views of organization. In 2005, Organization Studies called for papers about online communities that would stretch the field of organization studies. The articles in this special issue use empirical research and theory to re-examine fundamental questions of organizational boundaries, community, and member motivation.

My agent as myself or another: effects on credibility and listening to advice

Abstract: People consider other people who resemble them to be more persuasive. Users may consider embodied conversational agents, or ECAs, to be more persuasive if the agents resemble them. In an experimental study, we found that users rated the persuasiveness of agents that resemble them higher than other agents. However, actual advice-taking diverged from this pattern; when users created the agents, users changed their choices less when interacting with the agents that resembled them. We conducted a follow-up study and found that resemblance and self-esteem affect interactions with agents that resemble users. We discuss the use of self-report and behavioral data in evaluations of agent interfaces and how agents that resemble users might foster particular social interactions with a system. We suggest that agents that resemble users may be more persuasive in advising users about their actions and decisions.

Negotiation and conflict in large scale collaboration: a preliminary field study

Abstract: Coordinating activities in many settings can require people to manage conflict, potential and actual. Conflict arises from resource limitations, high-stakes consequences, uncertainty, goal conflict among stakeholders and hierarchical organizational structures. To understand coordination in such systems, we conducted a field study of management of surgical operating rooms. While coordinating interdependencies, such as progress monitoring, scheduling and rescheduling, and prodding, coordinators managed a set of complicated conflicts. They did so opportunistically, to resolve and to prevent conflict. Additionally, coordinators were concerned with perceived fairness. These findings indicate that, in the design of ICT to support coordination, we should examine not only the mechanical articulation of activities and efficient prioritization of resources, but also means to support companion social processes.

Exploring adaptive dialogue based on a robot's awareness of human gaze and task progress

Abstract: When a robot provides direction--as a guide, an assistant, or as an instructor--the robot may have to interact with people of different backgrounds and skill sets. Different people require informat on adapted to their level of understanding. In this paper, we explore the use of two simple forms of awareness that a robot might use to infer that a person needs further verbal elaboration during a tool select on task. First, the robot could use an eye tracker for inferring whether the person is looking at the robot and thus in need of further elaboration. Second, the robot could monitor delays in the individual's task progress, indicating that he or she could use further elaboration. We investigated the effects of these two types of awareness on performance time, selection mistakes, and the number of questions people asked the robot. We did not observe any obvious benefits of our gaze awareness manipulation. Awareness of task delays did reduce the number of questions participants' asked compared to our control condition but did not significantly reduce the number of select on mistakes. The mixed results of our investigation suggest that more research is necessary before we can understand how awareness of gaze and awareness of task delay can be successfully implemented in human-robot dialogue.

Using isovist views to study placement of large displays in natural settings

Abstract: In this paper we present the concept of an isovist, derived from the architectural literature, and describe how isovists can help HCI researchers understand visibility in a physical environment. An isovist is defined as the set of all points visible in all directions from a given vantage point in space. The overlap in isovists from two or more locations can be used to assess reciprocal visibility and thereby assist in the placement of large displays for public or shared use. We illustrate the value of isovists for HCI research using field data from two OR suites in two major urban hospitals. First, we show how patterns of interaction between anesthesiologists and nurses in each of two OR suites are associated with quantity of isovist overlap. Then, we show how an isovist analysis can be used to determine a better placement for the shared display in one of the OR suites to enhance coordination between groups.

Proceedings of the ACM/IEEE international conference on Human-robot interaction

Abstract: It is our great pleasure to welcome you to the 2nd ACM/IEEE International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI 2007). HRI is a highly selective annual conference that seeks to showcase the very best research and thinking in human-robot interaction. Human-robot interaction is inherently inter-disciplinary, and the conference sought papers from researchers in robotics, human-factors, ergonomics, human-computer interaction, cognitive psychology, and other fields. The mission of the conference is to create a common venue for this broad set of researchers.This year's conference theme is "Robot as Team Member". Robots are used in such critical domains as search and rescue, military theater, mine and bomb detection, scientific exploration, law enforcement, and hospital care. Such robots must coordinate their behaviors with human team members; they are more than mere tools but rather quasi-team members whose tasks have to be integrated with those of humans. HRI 2007 is dedicated to these and other issues in human and robot interaction, highlighting the importance of building core science and understanding the social and technical issues in human-robot interaction in the context of teams and groups.Of the 93 submissions, the program committee accepted 22 papers and 26 posters that cover a variety of topics, among them field studies of robots in public spaces, operator-robot rescue teams, attributions of robot behavior, and human-robot dialogue. The program includes paper presentations, a video session, two interactive poster sessions, panels on robots in teams and the future of HRI research, and keynote speeches by human teamwork expert, J. Richard Hackman of Harvard, and by Hiroshi Ishiguro of Osaka University and ATR. We hope that these proceedings will serve as a valuable reference for HRI researchers and students.

What Robots Could Teach Us about Perspective-Taking

Abstract: A distinctly social ability that underlies shared meaning, empathy, and cooperation is taking the perspective of another person during conversation. Research on communication has explored the manner in which human speakers account for their listeners’ perspectives and adjust their communications in their attempts to be understood (e.g., Clark & Wilkes-Gibbs, 1986; Fussell & Krauss, 1992; Krauss, Vivekananthan & Weinheimer, 1969). Speakers attend to their listeners’ group memberships and likely areas of expertise as they construct their messages (e.g., Clark & Marshall, 1981; Fussell & Krauss, 1992; Hupet, Chantraine & Neff, 1993; Isaacs & Clark, 1987). Speakers attend to what their partners can see, that is, their spatial perspective within the environment (e.g., Gergle, Kraut, & Fussell, 2004; Kraut, Miller & Siegel, 1996; Lockridge & Brennan, 2002; Schober, 1993). In addition, speakers attend to the verbal and nonverbal responses of their listeners to assess whether their message is comprehended and to make appropriate repairs and adjustments (e.g., Clark and Wilkes-Gibbs, 1986; Krauss & Bricker, 1966; Krauss & Weinheimer, 1966, 1968). These adjustments produce communication that is more effective, whether in the context of a single message (e.g., Fussell & Krauss, 1989) or over the course of an ongoing conversation (Kraut, Lewis & Swezey, 1982; Schober & Clark, 1989). There now exists considerable evidence on the information people use in perspective taking (for a recent review, see Schober & Brennan, 2003), but we know very little about failures in perspective taking and how conversationalists cope with inaccurate or inadequate perspective taking. We suggest that the specific nature of perspective taking in effective communication becomes particularly visible in conversations between humans and machines. Currently, the most common experience people have conversing with a machine is when they make a phone call to a customer service department and are greeted by an automated representative. These computer-driven speakers communicate with limited, if any, perspectivetaking abilities. These speakers have no sense for the caller’s familiarity with the task in question or with the number of times the caller has already been forced to listen to the complete set of instructions. Nearly everyone has a frustrating story to tell about these automated helpers. Many of these frustrations can be traced AU: Krauss et al is 1968 in refs. Which is correct?

Juggling Work Among Multiple Projects and Partner

Abstract: Prior research suggests people have trouble juggling effort across multiple projects with multiple partners. We investigated this problem, with an experiment where groups of four participants enacted the roles of police detectives. Each detective was assigned two homicide cases, each case with a different partner. To solve each case, detectives read their case documents and discussed relevant information with their partners. Half the groups used IM to communicate and the other half used an enhanced IM tool called project-view IM (PVIM). PVIM lists partners and joint projects and lets users know what a partner is working on. We analyzed keystroke level computer activity and the content of conversations. Generally, work unfolded as follows: coordinate across cases, start first case, read documents, coordinate within case with partner, switch to second case, and so on, but with frequent interruptions. We describe implications of our findings for theories of multitasking

Approaches to Authority in Online Disaster Relief Communities After Hurricane Katrina

Abstract: The Internet is widely valued for distributing control over information to a lateral network of individuals, but it is not clear how these networks can most effectively organize themselves. This chapter presents a descriptive study of distributed networks of volunteers that emerged online following Hurricane Katrina. Online communities responded to the disaster by facilitating the distribution of donated goods from ordinary people directly to hurricane survivors. These “connected giving” groups faced several challenges: establishing authority within the group, providing relevant information, developing trust in one another, and sustaining the group over time. Two forms of computer-mediated connected giving were observed: small blog communities and large forums. Small blog communities had a centralized authority figure in the form of a moderator. These groups were more immediately successful in managing information and developing trust, but over time blog communities were difficult to sustain. Large forums with more decentralized authority structures had greater difficulties focusing the community’s communication and developing trust but sustained themselves over a longer period of time. Authority in Online Disaster Relief Communities 3 Approaches to Authority in Online Disaster Relief Communities after Hurricane Katrina Hurricane Katrina flooded 80% of New Orleans and left four million residents of the southern United States in need of assistance (American-Red-Cross, 2006). The magnitude of the disaster overwhelmed institutions normally responsible for providing relief, such as the Red Cross and the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). Displaced residents of the city of New Orleans waited days for shelter, clothing, and financial aid. Meanwhile, people around the United States felt compelled to help. Some used Internet bulletin boards to offer jobs, services, and financial assistance to hurricane evacuees. When the Red Cross specifically discouraged “in-kind” donations of goods due to sorting and delivery overhead, website owners created online spaces to promote “connected giving.” Connected giving allowed people with goods to donate (such as clothing, tools, or diapers) to connect with people in the disaster area (Harris, 2005). Donors saw their distributed efforts as an appropriate complement to the distributed needs of those affected by the disaster. They saw gaps left by large, institutionalized organizations that could be filled by a peer-to-peer approach. Individuals with no training in disaster relief found one another through online communities and organized the distribution of an ad hoc collection of resources. People appropriated the Internet technologies that were readily available to them—forums, bulletin boards, blogs, and personal websites—to coordinate a massive grassroots response to the disaster. Two forms of computer-mediated connected giving were common: small blog communities and large forum communities. Small communities benefit from the strong relationships between members; these strong ties make cohesive, trusting groups. Large communities have the advantage of more resources, larger networks of participants, and diverse Authority in Online Disaster Relief Communities 4 information (Granovetter, 1973). Weak ties within large communities link people to new sources of information while the information from strong ties—which are often based on interpersonal similarity—may be redundant. Some connected giving communities used a moderator to establish authority and group norms. In Usenet groups, owners assume administrative authority, maintain the technical infrastructure, and help sustain the viability of the community by monitoring and encouraging on-topic posts (Butler et al. this book). Other communities distribute authority equally to members and establish group norms by consensus. The Internet is widely valued as a technology that connects people directly to one another without formal leadership. For example, Wikipedia allows the public to author a continually evolving encyclopedia and relies on its members to monitor one another’s contributions (Bryant, Forte, & Bruckman, 2005). Open source software communities grant commit privileges to a subset of participants in order to maintain quality (Mockus, Fielding, & Herbsleb, 2002). Slashdot uses thousands of moderators to rate the information the group receives (Lampe & Resnick, 2004). The absence of a single, centralized authority does not imply that these groups lack organizational structure. Communities that distribute authority must establish group norms as well, but they do so collectively. Committed members often emerge in these groups as informal leaders to sustain norms, initiate activity, and inspire members. In order to investigate the successes and challenges encountered by small blog communities and large forums, we sampled four representative sites. Connected giving groups faced several challenges: establishing authority within the group, providing relevant information, developing trust in one another, and sustaining the group over time. We observed small blog communities utilizing a centralized authority structure that appeared more immediately Authority in Online Disaster Relief Communities 5 successful in managing information and developing trust, but over time blog communities were difficult to sustain. Without a centralized authority, large forums appeared to have greater difficulties focusing the group’s communication and developing trust but managed to sustain themselves over a long period of time. Challenges of Connected Giving A connected giving community includes both donors and hurricane survivors, a mix of people offering and seeking help. Donors post offers and include their contact information. Hurricane survivors tell their stories and request specific items for their families. Other members offer logistical information, such as which zip codes are not flooded and open for postal deliveries. Working remotely, groups coordinating disaster relief face challenges beyond those of face-to-face groups. For example, remote teams often take longer to complete tasks (Herbsleb, Mockus, Finholt, & Grinter, 2000) and have more disagreements than teams working locally (Straus, 1997). Like many groups, connected giving communities after Hurricane Katrina had to coordinate information and establish trust, but they did so with a unique sense of urgency. The pressing need for disaster relief attracted large numbers of potential participants in a very short time and increased the likelihood of organization and communication failure. Connected giving communities faced several challenges—establishing authority, accessing information, establishing trust, and sustaining group activity. Authority in Online Disaster Relief Communities 6 Establishing Authority A centralized authority exists when decisions are made by one or a few individuals, such as a moderator or blog owner. Centralization helps achieve two goals: quality control and accountability. A moderator establishes interaction norms and standard operating procedures for the site. Contributions from visitors are subject to review by the moderator to determine appropriateness. In some cases, a moderator may establish interaction norms simply through leading by example, but moderators may actively edit or delete posts of community members as well. Decentralized authority structures are those in which decisions are made locally, distributed among members of the community. Decentralization has an advantage in making use of local expertise and on-the-scene contextual knowledge. However, no single person is accountable for problems. In decentralized online communities, the burden of developing interaction norms and standard operating procedures occurs through open discussion. Some decentralized communities use voting systems to influence the behavior of other members, such as allowing members to flag inappropriate posts. Heavily flagged posts are removed. In theory, there is no right answer as to which authority structure is better for an online community. Centralized authority supports smooth coordination, accountability, and consistency. Decentralized authority supports speedy action and local expertise. Authority in Online Disaster Relief Communities 7 Accessing Information In order for joint work to be successful, people must have access to the right information and people at the right times. Individuals often join online communities to exchange information (Ridings & Gefen, 2004). In context of urgent disaster relief, the need for access to information becomes even more important. Potential donors want their offers to be accepted; requestors want to be heard.

Watching Together: Integrating Conversation with Video

Abstract: Watching video online is becoming increasingly popular, and new video streaming technologies have the potential to transform video-watching from a passive, isolating experience into an active, socially engaging experience. However, the viability of an active social experience is unclear: both chatting and watching video require attention, and may interfere with one another and detract from the experience. In this paper, we empirically examine the activity of chatting while watching video online. We examine how groups of friends and strangers interact, and find that chat has a positive influence on social relationships, and people chat despite being distracted. We discuss the benefits and opportunities provided by mixing chat and video, uncover some of the attentional and social challenges inherent in this combination of media, and provide guidance for structuring the video-watching experience.

The Second International Conference on Human-Robot Interaction

Abstract: The second international conference on Human-Robot Interaction (HRI-2007) was held in Arlington, Virginia, March 9-11, 2007. The theme of the conference was "Robot as Team Member" and included posters and paper presentations on teamwork, social robotics, adaptation, observation and metrics, attention, user experience, and field testing. One hundred seventy-five researchers and practitioners attended the conference, and many more contributed to the conference as authors or reviewers. HRI-2008 will be held in Amsterdam, The Netherlands from March 12-15, 2008.