An inflammatory response initiated by the NLRP3 inflammasome is triggered by a variety of situations of host 'danger', including infection and metabolic dysregulation. Previous studies suggested that NLRP3 inflammasome activity is negatively regulated by autophagy and positively regulated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) derived from an uncharacterized organelle. Here we show that mitophagy/autophagy blockade leads to the accumulation of damaged, ROS-generating mitochondria, and this in turn activates the NLRP3 inflammasome. Resting NLRP3 localizes to endoplasmic reticulum structures, whereas on inflammasome activation both NLRP3 and its adaptor ASC redistribute to the perinuclear space where they co-localize with endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria organelle clusters. Notably, both ROS generation and inflammasome activation are suppressed when mitochondrial activity is dysregulated by inhibition of the voltage-dependent anion channel. This indicates that NLRP3 inflammasome senses mitochondrial dysfunction and may explain the frequent association of mitochondrial damage with inflammatory diseases.

http://basicmed.med.ncku.edu.tw/admin/up_img/1025-1.pdf

A role for mitochondria in NLRP3 inflammasome activation

A newly described coronavirus named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which is the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has infected over 2.3 million people, led to the death of more than 160,000 individuals and caused worldwide social and economic disruption1,2. There are no antiviral drugs with proven clinical efficacy for the treatment of COVID-19, nor are there any vaccines that prevent infection with SARS-CoV-2, and efforts to develop drugs and vaccines are hampered by the limited knowledge of the molecular details of how SARS-CoV-2 infects cells. Here we cloned, tagged and expressed 26 of the 29 SARS-CoV-2 proteins in human cells and identified the human proteins that physically associated with each of the SARS-CoV-2 proteins using affinity-purification mass spectrometry, identifying 332 high-confidence protein–protein interactions between SARS-CoV-2 and human proteins. Among these, we identify 66 druggable human proteins or host factors targeted by 69 compounds (of which, 29 drugs are approved by the US Food and Drug Administration, 12 are in clinical trials and 28 are preclinical compounds). We screened a subset of these in multiple viral assays and found two sets of pharmacological agents that displayed antiviral activity: inhibitors of mRNA translation and predicted regulators of the sigma-1 and sigma-2 receptors. Further studies of these host-factor-targeting agents, including their combination with drugs that directly target viral enzymes, could lead to a therapeutic regimen to treat COVID-19. A human–SARS-CoV-2 protein interaction map highlights cellular processes that are hijacked by the virus and that can be targeted by existing drugs, including inhibitors of mRNA translation and predicted regulators of the sigma receptors.

/pdf/a-sars-cov-2-protein-interaction-map-reveals-targets-for-5d1m2n6hc1.pdf

A SARS-CoV-2 protein interaction map reveals targets for drug repurposing.

Microglial cells are the resident macrophages in the central nervous system. These cells of mesodermal/mesenchymal origin migrate into all regions of the central nervous system, disseminate through the brain parenchyma, and acquire a specific ramified morphological phenotype termed "resting microglia." Recent studies indicate that even in the normal brain, microglia have highly motile processes by which they scan their territorial domains. By a large number of signaling pathways they can communicate with macroglial cells and neurons and with cells of the immune system. Likewise, microglial cells express receptors classically described for brain-specific communication such as neurotransmitter receptors and those first discovered as immune cell-specific such as for cytokines. Microglial cells are considered the most susceptible sensors of brain pathology. Upon any detection of signs for brain lesions or nervous system dysfunction, microglial cells undergo a complex, multistage activation process that converts them into the "activated microglial cell." This cell form has the capacity to release a large number of substances that can act detrimental or beneficial for the surrounding cells. Activated microglial cells can migrate to the site of injury, proliferate, and phagocytose cells and cellular compartments.

Physiology of Microglia

Objective: A primary behavioral pathology in drug addiction is the overpowering motivational strength and decreased ability to control the desire to obtain drugs. In this review the authors explore how advances in neurobiology are approaching an understanding of the cellular and circuitry underpinnings of addiction, and they describe the novel pharmacotherapeutic targets emerging from this understanding. Method: Findings from neuroimaging of addicts are integrated with cellular studies in animal models of drug seeking.

/pdf/the-neural-basis-of-addiction-a-pathology-of-motivation-and-34ptcg5vfs.pdf

The Neural Basis of Addiction: A Pathology of Motivation and Choice

Mitochondria: In Sickness and in Health

Sigma-1 Receptor Chaperones at the ER- Mitochondrion Interface Regulate Ca2+ Signaling and Cell Survival

MAM: more than just a housekeeper

The Pharmacology of Sigma-1 Receptors

Using a rat model of drug craving, we found that the responsiveness to cocaine cues progressively increases or incubates over the first 60 d of cocaine withdrawal. Here we studied whether alterations in brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) protein levels within the mesolimbic dopamine system are associated with this incubation phenomenon. BDNF is involved in synaptic plasticity and was found to enhance responding for cues associated with natural rewards. Rats were trained to press a lever to receive intravenous cocaine or oral sucrose for 6 hr/d for 10 d; each earned reward was paired with a tone–light cue. Resumption of lever-pressing behavior was then assessed on days 1, 30, or 90 of reward withdrawal. First, resistance to extinction was assessed during 6 hr in which lever presses were not reinforced and the cue was absent. Second, cue-induced reinstatement was assessed after extinction during 1 hr in which responding led to cue presentations. Other rats were killed without testing on days 1, 30, and 90 of reward withdrawal, and BDNF and nerve growth factor (NGF) protein levels were measured in the ventral tegmental area (VTA), accumbens, and amygdala. Lever pressing during extinction and cue-induced reinstatement tests of cocaine craving progressively increased after cocaine withdrawal. Time-dependent changes also were observed during the tests for sucrose craving, with maximal responding on day 30. BDNF, but not NGF, levels in the VTA, accumbens, and amygdala progressively increased after cocaine, but not sucrose, withdrawal. Time-dependent increases in BDNF levels may lead to synaptic modifications that underlie enhanced responsiveness to cocaine cues after prolonged withdrawal periods.

https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/23/3/742.full.pdf

Time-Dependent Increases in Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Protein Levels within the Mesolimbic Dopamine System after Withdrawal from Cocaine: Implications for Incubation of Cocaine Craving

Specific sigma binding sites have been identified in the mammalian brain and lymphoid tissue. In this study, certain gonadal and adrenal steroids, particularly progesterone, were found to inhibit sigma receptor binding in homogenates of brain and spleen. The findings suggest that steroids are naturally occurring ligands for sigma receptors and raise the possibility that these sites mediate some aspects of steroid-induced mental disturbances and alterations in immune functions.

Tsung-Ping Su

Papers

Sigma-1 Receptor Chaperones at the ER- Mitochondrion Interface Regulate Ca2+ Signaling and Cell Survival

MAM: more than just a housekeeper

The Pharmacology of Sigma-1 Receptors

Time-Dependent Increases in Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor Protein Levels within the Mesolimbic Dopamine System after Withdrawal from Cocaine: Implications for Incubation of Cocaine Craving

Steroid Binding at σ Receptors Suggests a Link between Endocrine, Nervous, and Immune Systems