Spintronics, or spin electronics, involves the study of active control and manipulation of spin degrees of freedom in solid-state systems. This article reviews the current status of this subject, including both recent advances and well-established results. The primary focus is on the basic physical principles underlying the generation of carrier spin polarization, spin dynamics, and spin-polarized transport in semiconductors and metals. Spin transport differs from charge transport in that spin is a nonconserved quantity in solids due to spin-orbit and hyperfine coupling. The authors discuss in detail spin decoherence mechanisms in metals and semiconductors. Various theories of spin injection and spin-polarized transport are applied to hybrid structures relevant to spin-based devices and fundamental studies of materials properties. Experimental work is reviewed with the emphasis on projected applications, in which external electric and magnetic fields and illumination by light will be used to control spin and charge dynamics to create new functionalities not feasible or ineffective with conventional electronics.

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Spintronics: Fundamentals and applications

We propose an electron wave analog of the electro‐optic light modulator. The current modulation in the proposed structure arises from spin precession due to the spin‐orbit coupling in narrow‐gap semiconductors, while magnetized contacts are used to preferentially inject and detect specific spin orientations. This structure may exhibit significant current modulation despite multiple modes, elevated temperatures, or a large applied bias.

Electronic analog of the electro‐optic modulator

Spintronics refers commonly to phenomena in which the spin of electrons in a solid state environment plays the determining role In a more narrow sense spintronics is an emerging research field of electronics: spintronics devices are based on a spin control of electronics, or on an electrical and optical control of spin or magnetism This review presents selected themes of semiconductor spintronics, introducing important concepts in spin transport, spin injection, Silsbee-Johnson spin-charge coupling, and spindependent tunneling, as well as spin relaxation and spin dynamics The most fundamental spin-dependent nteraction in nonmagnetic semiconductors is spin-orbit coupling Depending on the crystal symmetries of the material, as well as on the structural properties of semiconductor based heterostructures, the spin-orbit coupling takes on different functional forms, giving a nice playground of effective spin-orbit Hamiltonians The effective Hamiltonians for the most relevant classes of materials and heterostructures are derived here from realistic electronic band structure descriptions Most semiconductor device systems are still theoretical concepts, waiting for experimental demonstrations A review of selected proposed, and a few demonstrated devices is presented, with detailed description of two important classes: magnetic resonant tunnel structures and bipolar magnetic diodes and transistors In most cases the presentation is of tutorial style, introducing the essential theoretical formalism at an accessible level, with case-study-like illustrations of actual experimental results, as well as with brief reviews of relevant recent achievements in the field

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Semiconductor Spintronics

Spin photocurrents generated by homogeneous optical excitation with circularly polarized radiation in quantum wells (QWs) are reviewed. The absorption of circularly polarized light results in optical spin orientation due to the transfer of the angular momentum of photons to electrons of a two-dimensional electron gas. It is shown that in QWs belonging to one of the gyrotropic crystal classes a non-equilibrium spin polarization of uniformly distributed electrons causes a directed motion of electrons in the plane of the QW. A characteristic feature of this electric current, which occurs in unbiased samples, is that it reverses its direction upon changing the radiation helicity from left-handed to right-handed and vice versa. Two microscopic mechanisms are responsible for the occurrence of an electric current linked to a uniform spin polarization in a QW: the spin polarization-induced circular photogalvanic effect and the spin-galvanic effect. In both effects the current flow is driven by an asymmetric distribution of spin-polarized carriers in k-space of systems with lifted spin degeneracy due to k-linear terms in the Hamiltonian. Spin photocurrents provide methods to investigate spin relaxation and to reach a conclusion as regards the in-plane symmetry of QWs. The effect can also be utilized to develop fast detectors for determining the degree of circular polarization of a radiation beam. Furthermore, spin photocurrents under infrared excitation were used to demonstrate and investigate monopolar spin orientation of free carriers.

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Spin photocurrents in quantum wells

The relative strengths of Rashba and Dresselhaus terms describing the spin-orbit coupling in semiconductor quantum well (QW) structures are extracted from photocurrent measurements on n-type InAs QWs containing a two-dimensional electron gas (2DEG). This novel technique makes use of the angular distribution of the spin-galvanic effect at certain directions of spin orientation in the plane of a QW. The ratio of the relevant Rashba and Dresselhaus coefficients can be deduced directly from experiment and does not relay on theoretically obtained quantities. Thus our experiments open a new way to determine the different contributions to spin-orbit coupling.

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Experimental Separation of Rashba and Dresselhaus Spin-Splittings in Semiconductor Quantum Wells

The splitting in zero magnetic field between the up- and down-spin electrons in a two-dimensional electron gas is obtained for a series of three different ${\mathrm{In}}_{x}{\mathrm{Ga}}_{1\ensuremath{-}x}\mathrm{As}/{\mathrm{In}}_{0.52}{\mathrm{Al}}_{0.48}\mathrm{As}$ modulation-doped heterostructures with high electron densities [${n}_{s}\ensuremath{\sim}(1.5\ensuremath{-}1.8)\ifmmode\times\else\texttimes\fi{}{10}^{12}$ ${\mathrm{cm}}^{\ensuremath{-}2}$]. We have observed a characteristic beating modulation in the amplitude of the Shubnikov-de Haas oscillations in this system and up to six nodes have been measured in the Shubnikov-de Haas data for magnetic fields in the range $0.15 \mathrm{T}lBl1.0 \mathrm{T}$. Analysis of these data indicates that one subband is primarily occupied and the two beating frequencies arise from a spin splitting of the lowest subband. A spin splitting of 1.5-2.5 meV as $B\ensuremath{\rightarrow}0$ is deduced from the data. For magnetic fields applied at an angle $\ensuremath{\theta}$ to the interface, the beat positions scale as $cos\ensuremath{\theta}$ for small angles but increase steeply after a critical angle.

Evidence for spin splitting in In x Ga 1-x As/In 0.52 Al 0.48 As heterostructures as B-->0

We report on the dc and microwave performance of an MOCVD-grown carbon-doped GaInP/GaAs double heterojunction bipolar transistor (DHBT) with a thin highly doped n-type GaInP layer in the collector. The DHBT showed improved current-voltage characteristics at low collector-emitter bias compared with those of a DHBT without the heavily doped GaInP layer, while maintaining a high breakdown voltage (BV/sub CEO//spl sim/20 V). Small area, self-aligned emitter transistors with two 2/spl times/5 /spl mu/m/sup 2/ emitter fingers were fabricated and exhibited f/sub T/ and f/sub max/ of 53 GHz and 75 GHz, respectively. These results indicate the promise of carbon-doped base GaInP/GaAs DHBT's for high-power microwave applications. >

GaInP/GaAs double heterojunction bipolar transistor with high f/sub T/, f/sub max/, and breakdown voltage

The DC and microwave performance of a strained In/sub 0/./sub 65/Ga/sub 0/./sub 35/As/In/sub 0/./sub 52/A1/sub 0/./sub 48/As HEMT (high-electron-mobility transistors) is reported. Its design is based on theoretical and experimental studies including low- and high-field transport characterization of heterostructures with different strains. The intrinsic DC transconductance and cutoff frequence of 1.4- mu m-long gate HEMTs are 574 mS/mm and 38.6 GHz, respectively. The increased indium (In) composition in the channel enhances the drift velocity from 1.35*10/sup 7/ to 1.55*10/sup 7/ cm/s at 300 K. >

Characteristics of strained In/sub 0.65/Ga/sub 0.35/As/In/sub 0/./sub 52/Al/sub 0/./sub 48/As HEMT with optimized transport parameters

A new model for interface roughness scattering in modulation-doped (MD) heterostructures, based on the physical structure of a molecular beam epitaxy- (MBE) grown heterointerface, is formulated. The parameters describing interface roughness have been derived from growth studies and analysis of photoluminescence linewidths of quantum wells. The model has been applied to analyze low-temperature electron mobilities in normal and inverted In 0.53 Ga 0.47 As-In 0.52 Al 0.48 As MD heterostructures. It is found that the mobility in the normal heterostructure is limited by alloy scattering, whereas both alloy and interface roughness scattering play equally dominant roles in the inverted structure.

Interface roughness scattering in normal and inverted In 0.53 Ga 0.47 As&#8212;In 0.52 Al 0.48 As modulation-doped heterostructures

The velocity-field and mobility-field characteristics of normal and inverted InGaAs/InAlAs modulation-doped heterostructures grown by molecular-beam epitaxy have been measured at 300 and 77 K. Veloczities of 3.0 × 107and 1.7 × 107cm/s have been measured in the normal and inverted structures, respectively, at 77 K. Current instabilities are observed at the corresponding field values. Hall mobilities decrease With field beyond 500 V/cm, principally due to phonon scattering. The mobilities in normal and inverted heterostructures attain Similar values at fields higher than 1 kV/cm, irrespective of the low-field values.

W. P. Hong

Papers

Evidence for spin splitting in In x Ga 1-x As/In 0.52 Al 0.48 As heterostructures as B-->0

GaInP/GaAs double heterojunction bipolar transistor with high f/sub T/, f/sub max/, and breakdown voltage

Characteristics of strained In/sub 0.65/Ga/sub 0.35/As/In/sub 0/./sub 52/Al/sub 0/./sub 48/As HEMT with optimized transport parameters

Interface roughness scattering in normal and inverted In 0.53 Ga 0.47 As—In 0.52 Al 0.48 As modulation-doped heterostructures

High-field transport in InGaAs/InAlAs modulation-doped heterostructures

W. P. Hong

Papers

Evidence for spin splitting in In x Ga 1-x As/In 0.52 Al 0.48 As heterostructures as B-->0

GaInP/GaAs double heterojunction bipolar transistor with high f/sub T/, f/sub max/, and breakdown voltage

Characteristics of strained In/sub 0.65/Ga/sub 0.35/As/In/sub 0/./sub 52/Al/sub 0/./sub 48/As HEMT with optimized transport parameters

Interface roughness scattering in normal and inverted In 0.53 Ga 0.47 As&#8212;In 0.52 Al 0.48 As modulation-doped heterostructures

High-field transport in InGaAs/InAlAs modulation-doped heterostructures

Interface roughness scattering in normal and inverted In 0.53 Ga 0.47 As—In 0.52 Al 0.48 As modulation-doped heterostructures