The family of 2D transition metal carbides, carbonitrides and nitrides (collectively referred to as MXenes) has expanded rapidly since the discovery of Ti3C2 in 2011. The materials reported so far always have surface terminations, such as hydroxyl, oxygen or fluorine, which impart hydrophilicity to their surfaces. About 20 different MXenes have been synthesized, and the structures and properties of dozens more have been theoretically predicted. The availability of solid solutions, the control of surface terminations and a recent discovery of multi-transition-metal layered MXenes offer the potential for synthesis of many new structures. The versatile chemistry of MXenes allows the tuning of properties for applications including energy storage, electromagnetic interference shielding, reinforcement for composites, water purification, gas- and biosensors, lubrication, and photo-, electro- and chemical catalysis. Attractive electronic, optical, plasmonic and thermoelectric properties have also been shown. In this Review, we present the synthesis, structure and properties of MXenes, as well as their energy storage and related applications, and an outlook for future research. More than twenty 2D carbides, nitrides and carbonitrides of transition metals (MXenes) have been synthesized and studied, and dozens more predicted to exist. Highly electrically conductive MXenes show promise in electrical energy storage, electromagnetic interference shielding, electrocatalysis, plasmonics and other applications.

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2D metal carbides and nitrides (MXenes) for energy storage

Recently a new, large family of two-dimensional (2D) early transition metal carbides and carbonitrides, called MXenes, was discovered. MXenes are produced by selective etching of the A element from the MAX phases, which are metallically conductive, layered solids connected by strong metallic, ionic, and covalent bonds, such as Ti2AlC, Ti3AlC2, and Ta4AlC3. MXenes ­combine the metallic conductivity of transition metal carbides with the hydrophilic nature of their hydroxyl or oxygen terminated surfaces. In essence, they behave as “conductive clays”. This article reviews progress—both ­experimental and theoretical—on their synthesis, structure, properties, intercalation, delamination, and potential applications. MXenes are expected to be good candidates for a host of applications. They have already shown promising performance in electrochemical energy storage systems. A detailed outlook for future research on MXenes is also presented.

25th Anniversary Article: MXenes: A New Family of Two‐Dimensional Materials

Safe and powerful energy storage devices are becoming increasingly important. Charging times of seconds to minutes, with power densities exceeding those of batteries, can in principle be provided by electrochemical capacitors--in particular, pseudocapacitors. Recent research has focused mainly on improving the gravimetric performance of the electrodes of such systems, but for portable electronics and vehicles volume is at a premium. The best volumetric capacitances of carbon-based electrodes are around 300 farads per cubic centimetre; hydrated ruthenium oxide can reach capacitances of 1,000 to 1,500 farads per cubic centimetre with great cyclability, but only in thin films. Recently, electrodes made of two-dimensional titanium carbide (Ti3C2, a member of the 'MXene' family), produced by etching aluminium from titanium aluminium carbide (Ti3AlC2, a 'MAX' phase) in concentrated hydrofluoric acid, have been shown to have volumetric capacitances of over 300 farads per cubic centimetre. Here we report a method of producing this material using a solution of lithium fluoride and hydrochloric acid. The resulting hydrophilic material swells in volume when hydrated, and can be shaped like clay and dried into a highly conductive solid or rolled into films tens of micrometres thick. Additive-free films of this titanium carbide 'clay' have volumetric capacitances of up to 900 farads per cubic centimetre, with excellent cyclability and rate performances. This capacitance is almost twice that of our previous report, and our synthetic method also offers a much faster route to film production as well as the avoidance of handling hazardous concentrated hydrofluoric acid.

Conductive two-dimensional titanium carbide ‘clay’ with high volumetric capacitance

Nitrogen (N)-doped carbon materials exhibit high electrocatalytic activity for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), which is essential for several renewable energy systems. However, the ORR active site (or sites) is unclear, which retards further developments of high-performance catalysts. Here, we characterized the ORR active site by using newly designed graphite (highly oriented pyrolitic graphite) model catalysts with well-defined π conjugation and well-controlled doping of N species. The ORR active site is created by pyridinic N. Carbon dioxide adsorption experiments indicated that pyridinic N also creates Lewis basic sites. The specific activities per pyridinic N in the HOPG model catalysts are comparable with those of N-doped graphene powder catalysts. Thus, the ORR active sites in N-doped carbon materials are carbon atoms with Lewis basicity next to pyridinic N.

Active sites of nitrogen-doped carbon materials for oxygen reduction reaction clarified using model catalysts

The recent advances in electrocatalysis for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) for proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFCs) are thoroughly reviewed. This comprehensive Review focuses on the low- and non-platinum electrocatalysts including advanced platinum alloys, core–shell structures, palladium-based catalysts, metal oxides and chalcogenides, carbon-based non-noble metal catalysts, and metal-free catalysts. The recent development of ORR electrocatalysts with novel structures and compositions is highlighted. The understandings of the correlation between the activity and the shape, size, composition, and synthesis method are summarized. For the carbon-based materials, their performance and stability in fuel cells and comparisons with those of platinum are documented. The research directions as well as perspectives on the further development of more active and less expensive electrocatalysts are provided.

http://repository.ust.hk/ir/bitstream/1783.1-77094/1/acs.chemrev.5b00462_withlink.pdf

Recent Advances in Electrocatalysts for Oxygen Reduction Reaction

The development of high-performance and low-cost catalytic materials for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) has been a major challenge for the large-scale application of fuel cells. Currently, platinum and platinum-based alloys are the most efficient ORR catalysts in fuel-cell cathodes; however, they cannot meet the demand for the widespread commercialization of fuel cells because of the scarcity of platinum. Thus, the ongoing search for platinum-free catalysts for the ORR has attracted much attention. Graphene, single-layer sheets of sp-hybridized carbon atoms, has attracted tremendous attention and research interest. The abundance of free-flowing p electrons in carbon materials composed of sp-hybridized carbon atoms makes these materials potential catalysts for reactions that require electrons, such as the ORR. However, these p electrons are too inert to be used directly in the ORR. In N-doped electron-rich carbon nanostructures, carbon p electrons have been shown to be activated through conjugation with lone-pair electrons from N dopants; thus, O2 molecules are reduced on the positively charged C atoms that neighbor N atoms. Recently, Hu and co-workers found that as long as the electroneutrality of the sp-hybridized carbon atoms is broken and charged sites that favor O2 adsorption are created, these materials will be transformed into active metal-free ORR electrocatalysts regardless of whether the dopants are electron-rich (e.g., N) or electrondeficient (e.g., B). Nitrogen-doped carbon (NC) materials are considered to be promising catalysts because of their acceptable ORR activity, low cost, good durability, and environmental friendliness. However, their ORR activity is less competitive, especially in acidic media. Relative to commercial Pt/C, the difference in the half-wave potential for ORR is within 25 mV in alkaline electrolytes but is greater than 200 mV in acidic electrolytes. The activity of NC materials can be enhanced through efficient N doping with sufficient active species that favor ORR and through an increase in electrical conductivity. The annealing of graphitized carbon materials, such as carbon nanotubes and microporous carbon black, in NH3 leads to insufficient substitution of nitrogen because of the well-ordered structure of the host materials. Alternatively, the direct pyrolysis of nitrogen-containing hydrocarbons or polymers produces NC materials with good incorporation of nitrogen. However, suitable pyrolysis temperatures are difficult to pinpoint; without optimization, temperatures that are excessively low or excessively high lead to low electronic conductivity or a remarkable loss of active N species, respectively. Recently, mesoporous-alumina-assisted and silica-template-assisted nitrogen incorporation, which can preserve a high content of N in synthesized NC materials, have been reported. However the activities of the resulting NC materials in the ORR were still significantly lower than that of Pt/C, even when the N content was as high as 10.7 atm%. Among three types of N atoms, that is, pyridinic, pyrrolic, and quaternary N, only the pyridinic and pyrrolic forms, which have planar structures, have been proven to be active in the ORR. In contrast, quaternary N atoms, which possess a 3D structure, are not active in the ORR. The low electrical conductivity of NC materials with quaternary N atoms results from the interruption of their p–p conjugation by the 3D structure and is thought to be predominantly responsible for the poor catalysis. Therefore, the synthesis of NC materials with more planar pyridinic and pyrrolic N atoms and fewer quaternary N atoms is important for the preparation of ORR-active catalysts. Herein, we present a novel strategy for the selective synthesis of pyridinicand pyrrolic-nitrogen-doped graphene (NG) by the use of layered montmorillonite (MMT) as a quasi-closed flat nanoreactor, which is open only along the perimeter to enable the entrance of aniline (AN) monomer molecules. The flat MMT nanoreactor, which is less than 1 nm thick, extensively constrains the formation of quaternary N because of its 3D structure but facilitates the formation of pyridinic and pyrrolic N. Nitrogen is well-known to be incorporated into quaternary N in tetrahedral sp hybridization but incorporated into pyridinic and pyrrolic N in planar sp hybridization. The confinement effect of MMT ensures that N is incorporated into the structure and that the graphitization is successful without significant loss of N species. Furthermore, planar pyridinic and pyrrolic N can be [*] Dr. W. Ding, Prof. Z.-D. Wei, Dr. S.-G. Chen, Dr. X.-Q. Qi, Dr. T. Yang, Dr. S. F. Alvi, Dr. L. Li The State Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment and System Security and New Technology, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing University Shapingba 174, Chongqing (China) E-mail: zdwei@cqu.edu.cn

Space-confinement-induced synthesis of pyridinic- and pyrrolic-nitrogen-doped graphene for the catalysis of oxygen reduction

Herein, we report a “shape fixing via salt recrystallization” method to efficiently synthesize nitrogen-doped carbon material with a large number of active sites exposed to the three-phase zones, for use as an ORR catalyst. Self-assembled polyaniline with a 3D network structure was fixed and fully sealed inside NaCl via recrystallization of NaCl solution. During pyrolysis, the NaCl crystal functions as a fully sealed nanoreactor, which facilitates nitrogen incorporation and graphitization. The gasification in such a closed nanoreactor creates a large number of pores in the resultant samples. The 3D network structure, which is conducive to mass transport and high utilization of active sites, was found to have been accurately transferred to the final N-doped carbon materials, after dissolution of the NaCl. Use of the invented cathode catalyst in a proton exchange membrane fuel cell produces a peak power of 600 mW cm–2, making this among the best nonprecious metal catalysts for the ORR reported so far. Furth...

Shape Fixing via Salt Recrystallization: A Morphology-Controlled Approach To Convert Nanostructured Polymer to Carbon Nanomaterial as a Highly Active Catalyst for Oxygen Reduction Reaction

An extraordinarily stable catalyst: Pt NPs supported on two-dimensional Ti3C2X2 (X = OH, F) nanosheets for oxygen reduction reaction.

Oxygen vacancies (OVs) are important for changing the geometric and electronic structures as well as the chemical properties of MnO2. In this study, we performed a DFT+U calculation on the electronic structure and catalytic performance of a β-MnO2 catalyst for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) with different numbers and extents of OVs. Comparing those results with the experimental XRD analysis, we determined that OVs produce a new crystalline phase of β-MnO2. Changes in the electronic structure (Bader charges, band structure, partial density of states, local density of states, and frontier molecular orbital), proton insertion, and oxygen adsorption in β-MnO2 (110) were investigated as a function of the bulk OVs. The results show that a moderate concentration of bulk OVs reduced the band gap, increased the Fermi and HOMO levels of the MnO2 (or MnOOH), and elongated the O–O bond of the adsorbed O2 and coadsorbed O2 with H. These changes substantially increase the conductivity of MnO2 for the catalysis of ...

Insight into the Effect of Oxygen Vacancy Concentration on the Catalytic Performance of MnO2

In this study, an inexpensive electrocatalyst, Ni-doped Mo2C nanowires, were grown directly on Ni foam via a hydrothermal reaction combined with a carburization process. X-ray diffraction (XRD), field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), cyclic voltammetry (CV), and linear scanning voltammetry (LSV) were used to scrutinize the catalysts and their electrochemical performance. The results showed that the designed NiMo2C/NF catalyst displays enhanced catalytic activity toward hydrogen production with a low onset overpotential of 21 mV. For driving a cathodic current density of 100 mA cm−2, it only needs an overpotential of 150 mV. Such excellent performance of NiMo2C/NF could be ascribed to the high intrinsic activity from a synergistic function of Ni and Mo2C, as well as to the exposure of more Ni-doped Mo2C sites provided by the high aspect ratio of a one-dimensional (1D) structure and rich surface area.

Wei Ding

Papers

Space-confinement-induced synthesis of pyridinic- and pyrrolic-nitrogen-doped graphene for the catalysis of oxygen reduction

Shape Fixing via Salt Recrystallization: A Morphology-Controlled Approach To Convert Nanostructured Polymer to Carbon Nanomaterial as a Highly Active Catalyst for Oxygen Reduction Reaction

An extraordinarily stable catalyst: Pt NPs supported on two-dimensional Ti3C2X2 (X = OH, F) nanosheets for oxygen reduction reaction.

Insight into the Effect of Oxygen Vacancy Concentration on the Catalytic Performance of MnO2

Ni-doped Mo2C nanowires supported on Ni foam as a binder-free electrode for enhancing the hydrogen evolution performance