Showing papers in "American Journal of Criminal Justice in 2021"

Exploring the Immediate Effects of COVID-19 Containment Policies on Crime: an Empirical Analysis of the Short-Term Aftermath in Los Angeles.

Abstract: This work investigates whether and how COVID-19 containment policies had an immediate impact on crime trends in Los Angeles. The analysis is conducted using Bayesian structural time-series and focuses on nine crime categories and on the overall crime count, daily monitored from January 1st 2017 to March 28th 2020. We concentrate on two post-intervention time windows-from March 4th to March 16th and from March 4th to March 28th 2020-to dynamically assess the short-term effects of mild and strict policies. In Los Angeles, overall crime has significantly decreased, as well as robbery, shoplifting, theft, and battery. No significant effect has been detected for vehicle theft, burglary, assault with a deadly weapon, intimate partner assault, and homicide. Results suggest that, in the first weeks after the interventions are put in place, social distancing impacts more directly on instrumental and less serious crimes. Policy implications are also discussed.

Stop and Risk: Policing, Data, and the Digital Age of Discrimination

Abstract: Predictive policing is the newest innovation in the field of law enforcement. Predictive policing programs use algorithms to analyze existing crime data in an attempt to make predictions about future crimes: What crimes are likely to be committed, where crimes are likely to be committed, and a list of potential victims and offenders. Proponents of predictive policing champion the practice as an effective, proactive form of law enforcement that is free from bias due to its data-driven nature. However, as a matter of justice policy, predictive policing is just as discriminatory as traditional police practices, such as stop and frisk: Both are relatively ineffective; both have the potential to disproportionately target minorities; both are challenging forms of surveillance that create several important ethical and legal issues; and both are presented as objective, impartial, and equitable. This article has three primary goals: Highlight the potential and problematic similarities between stop and frisk and predictive policing; present the problems associated with predictive policing, including its questionable effectiveness, biased foundation, and faulty legal and ethical footing; and discuss the ways in which discriminatory criminal justice programs, such as stop and frisk and predictive policing, are presented to the public as objective, non-discriminatory policies.

Debt, Incarceration, and Re-entry: a Scoping Review.

Abstract: People involved with the criminal justice system in the United States are disproportionately low-income and indebted. The experience of incarceration intensifies financial hardship, including through worsening debt. Little is known about how people who are incarcerated and their families are impacted by debt and how it affects their reentry experience. We conducted a scoping review to identify what is known about the debt burden on those who have been incarcerated and their families and how this impacts their lives. We searched 14 data bases from 1990 to 2019 for all original research addressing financial debt held by those incarcerated in the United States, and screened articles for relevance and extracted data from pertinent studies. These 31 studies selected for inclusion showed that this population is heavily burdened by debt that was accumulated in three general categories: debt directly from criminal justice involvement such as LFOs, preexisting debt that compounded during incarceration, and debts accrued during reentry for everyday survival. Debt was generally shown to have a negative effect on financial well-being, reentry, family structure, and mental health. Debts from LFOs and child support is very common among the justice-involved population and are largely unpayable. Other forms of debt likely to burden this population remain largely understudied. Extensive reform is necessary to lessen the burden of debt on the criminal justice population in order to improve reentry outcomes and quality of life.

Supporting the Message, Not the Messenger: The Correlates of Attitudes towards Black Lives Matter

Abstract: Since the Black Lives Matter movement’s rise to prominence, there has been significant opposition from both media and political figures who believe that the movement is promoting a “war on cops.” Because there is no evidence to support this claim, the current study examines the basis for negative attitudes towards Black Lives Matter using a sample of over 500 undergraduate students from a large Midwestern university. The findings indicate that the strongest predictors of negative attitudes towards Black Lives Matter are being white and holding symbolically racist attitudes. Perceiving the police to be equivalent to soldiers in a war on crime, perceiving police misconduct to be less common, and holding a conservative crime ideology are also significant in the model.

Hate Crimes against Asian Americans.

Abstract: Using 1992-2014 data from the National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS), the present study examines the nature and characteristics of hate crimes against Asian Americans by comparing them with those of hate crimes against African Americans and Hispanics. Minority-general and minority-specific models are proposed to guide the analysis. The findings are mixed. The analyses of all victim-related and most offender-related variables show similarities of hate crimes against Asian Americans to those against African Americans and Hispanics. These findings provide support for the minority-general model. Offenders' race and all incident-related variables of hate crimes against Asian Americans, however, differ significantly from those of hate crimes against African Americans and Hispanics. These significant differences provide support for the minority-specific model.

Moving Beyond Narcan: A Police, Social Service, and Researcher Collaborative Response to the Opioid Crisis.

Abstract: The opioid crisis is the most persistent, long-term public health emergency facing the United States, and available evidence suggests the crisis has worsened during the COVID-19 global pandemic. Naloxone is an effective overdose response that saves lives, but the drug does not address problematic drug use, addiction, or the underlying conditions that lead to overdoses. The opioid crisis is at its core a multidisciplinary, multisystem problem, and an effective response to the crisis requires collaboration across those various systems. This paper describes such a collaborative effort. The Tempe First-Responder Opioid Recovery Project is a multidisciplinary partnership that includes police officers, social workers, substance use peer counselors, public health professionals, police researchers, and drug policy/harm reduction researchers. The project, 10 months underway, trained and equipped Tempe (AZ) police officers to administer Narcan. In addition, a 24/7 in-person "Crisis Outreach Response Team" rapidly responds to any suspected overdose and offers follow-up support, referrals, and services to the individual (and loved ones) for up to 45 days after the overdose. We present preliminary project data including interviews with project managers, counselors, and police officers, descriptions of Narcan administrations in the field, and aggregate data on client service engagement. These data highlight the complexity of the opioid crisis, the collaborative nature of the Tempe project, and the importance of initiating a multidisciplinary, comprehensive response to effectively deal with the opioid problem.

Social Contagion in Bullying: an Examination of Strains and Types of Bullying Victimization in Peer Networks

Abstract: This study examined risk and protective factors for four types of bullying victimization – physical, verbal, relational, and cyber bullying – while assessing the influence of vicarious, anticipated, and experienced strains from General Strain Theory. In this study, experienced strain was operationalized as exposure to negative stimuli, such as rejection. Vicarious strain was operationalized as witnessing or being aware of other people’s negative experiences, such as peer victimization, and anticipated strain occurred when an individual had negative expectations about the future, such as a fear of harm. Using a sample of Southeastern high school students, this study found that individuals who experienced vicarious strain (peer victimization) had a higher likelihood of experiencing the same type of victimization as their peers. Previous bullies were also likely to experience the same type of bullying that they initiated. Anticipated strain (fear of attack) was associated with an increased likelihood of experiencing verbal and cyber bullying. Adult support was associated with an increased likelihood of verbal bullying but decreased likelihood of relational bullying victimization. Peer support was associated with an increased likelihood of experiencing relational and cyber bullying victimization. The results support Agnew’s (2006) proposal that experienced, vicarious, and anticipated strains are correlated with antisocial behavior and victimization (Zavala & Spohn, 2013). Policy implications and directions for future research are discussed.

Plea-Bargaining Law: the Impact of Innocence, Trial Penalty, and Conviction Probability on Plea Outcomes

Abstract: Despite the prevalence of guilty pleas, we know relatively little about factors that influence the decision to plead. Replicating and extending Dervan and Edkins’ Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 103, 1-48. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2071397, (2013), we conducted two experiments to examine the effects of guilt status, trial penalty, and conviction likelihood on plea outcomes using an adaptation of a high-stakes cheating paradigm. Students were led to believe that they were participating in a study examining team versus individual problem solving. Those randomly assigned to a guilty condition were induced to cheat on an individual problem by a study confederate (in clear violation of the study instructions). All participants were later accused of cheating in the research study, and were offered the analogue of a plea deal in an academic context. Across both experiments, guilty participants were significantly more likely to plead guilty than innocent participants. In Experiment 2, conviction probability affected plea rates only among the innocent. The trial penalty manipulation had no significant effect on plea rates. Reasons for pleading guilty differed between the innocent and the guilty, whereas the plea rejection rationales were similar across the two groups. Overall, this research highlights several avenues for further research aimed at improving the current system of pleas to reduce false guilty pleas.

#MeToo for Whom? Sexual Assault Disclosures Before and After #MeToo

Abstract: In October 2017, #MeToo became a global hashtag for victims of sexual assault and harassment. In this study, we examine the extent of unwanted sexual experiences and disclosure, as well as perceptions of #MeToo, to assess differences among students who were represented and underrepresented in #MeToo coverage. Using a stratified random sample of students at a private university in the mid-Atlantic region of the U.S., we analyzed data from cross-sectional surveys conducted in March 2017 (n = 1722) and March 2019 (n = 1503). Results suggest that, relative to White students, in 2019 compared to 2017, there was an increase in disclosures among Black students and a decrease among Multiracial students. There was also an increase in undergraduate students who indicated ever experiencing unwanted sexual activity in 2019. Students who believed #MeToo affected how they think about past experiences were more likely to have indicated past experiences with unwanted sexual activity. Results also suggest that cisgender women, LGBQ, white, and multiracial students are at increased risk of unwanted sexual activity. However, Asian students, cisgender men, and non-LGBQ students may be less likely to disclose unwanted sexual activity. Implications for evaluating long-term impacts of #MeToo are discussed, along with suggestions for future research.

The Impacts of Body-Worn Cameras: An Examination of Police Specialty Unit Perceptions through Diffusion of Innovations

Abstract: The present study analyzed data from 39 semi-structured interviews with specialized unit officers from one mid- and one small-sized police department in the United States. The data indicates that specialty unit officers perceived body-worn cameras in terms of the costs and consequences of the technology, which aligns with the diffusion of innovations paradigm. These officers had differential views of the costs of BWCs and the capabilities and uses of BWCs compared to patrol officers. These findings urge further investigation into the costs and consequences of body-worn cameras on specialty units, as well as an exploration into the impact of the technology’s technical capabilities. If there are key differences between specialty units and patrol officers in perceptions of the cameras, policy regarding the technology may be best if it can address these differences in order to maximize the benefits of the technology.

Victims’ Perceptions of Cyberstalking: an Examination of Perceived Offender Motivation

Abstract: The current study explores cyberstalking victims’ perceived offender motivation for using a sample of 576 young adults who had been repeatedly pursued online by someone they knew within the previous 12-months. Results revealed that cyberstalking victims most frequently believed that the perpetrator engaged in the repeated unwanted contacts because they were motivated by affection (47.22%), rejection (43.58%), or were obsessed with them (41.49%). Further, the study assessed whether victims’ perceived cyberstalker motivation impacted whether they felt fearful as a result of the repeated online pursuit behavior, controlling for offense seriousness and demographic characteristics. Multivariate findings revealed that when victims perceived their cyberstalker was motivated by retaliation or revenge or rejection, they were statistically significantly more likely to feel fearful as a result of the repeated online behaviors. In contrast, when victims perceived their cyberstalker was motivated by feelings of affection, they were statistically significantly less likely to feel fearful as a result of the repeated online pursuit behaviors. Implications for cyberstalking victims’ reporting and help-seeking behaviors are offered.

Sexual Harassment in Transit Environments among College Students in the #MeToo Era: Reporting Evidence from Six Continents

Abstract: Evaluating patterns of sexual violence against young people across the world in the era of the #MeToo movement presents great opportunities for research and practice but also challenges. The aim of this article is to critically assess an internet-based methodology employed in a comparative study conducted with university students in 18 different cities, in six continents. While our main purpose is to examine the methodological aspects of this study, the article also presents briefly its major findings and discusses compiled recommendations to curb sexual violence in some of the most important transit systems in the world. Findings show that sexual violence in transit environments is a common occurrence globally, is highly underreported, and ranges considerably from one city to the other, and between gender groups. Lessons from this study suggest that it is crucial to use identical research tools and choose partners who can ensure that research tasks are undertaken on time, ethically, and with good care for the quality of data and the research process. To curb sexual violence on transit, actions tailored to local contexts are necessary, but as underreporting of harassment is prevalent in all contexts, one global need is initiatives that facilitate incident reporting.

The Relationship Between Citizen Oversight and Procedural Justice Measures in Policing: An Exploratory Study

Abstract: Some American law enforcement agencies continue to experience disruptions in the level of trust and legitimacy ascribed to them by their communities. Citizen review boards (CRBs), may be an effective means for improving the police-community relationship. Utilizing a framework grounded in procedural justice and citizen participation, this study examines whether a link exists between CRBs and community satisfaction in the police and four procedural justice measures: 1) trust in the police, 2) belief the police are held accountable, 3) belief the police treat all people equally, and 4) belief the police are building positive community relationships. To estimate these correlations, this study uses a unique dataset from 48 U.S. cities and employs bivariate and multivariate methods to analyze the data. The findings indicate a mostly positive association between CRBs and procedural justice measures, which suggests that CRBs may be able to bolster legitimacy and enhance the police-community relationship in some communities.

Reentering the Community after Prison: Perspectives on the Role and Importance of Social Support

Abstract: Individuals reentering the community after prison can face a host of complex challenges. Social support appears to be an important factor in helping recently released men and women by promoting adjustment and success in multiple areas of life. However, social support during the reentry is not well understood in terms of what types of support help individuals, who can best provide this support, how certain aspects of social support might be harmful, and pathways through which support helps individuals. This qualitative study explores four common types of social support that have been identified in the research literature: emotional, instrumental, informational, and companionship. In-depth interviews with 26 adults recently released from prison found variation in the type of support received, the source of the support (primary or secondary groups), and whether the support was primarily positive, negative or harmful, or absent. Exploratory findings surfaced around seven potential pathways through which social support might help individuals who are reentering the community. Suggestions are made for the future work of practitioners and researchers during the reentry period.

Sexual Assault Awareness in the #Metoo Era: Student Perceptions of Victim Believability and Cases in the Media

Abstract: Media discussions of sexual violence have increased since the rapid growth of the social media movement #metoo. Specifically, the phrase resurfaced in abundance in 2017 when actress, producer, activist Alyssa Milano encouraged her social media followers to reply “me too” if they had ever been sexually harassed or assaulted. In addition to raising awareness, media coverage of historically silent topics such as sexual assault can be beneficial as it relates to widespread education. Conversely, widespread dissemination of sexual violence misperceptions—also known as rape myths—can perpetuate rape culture (e.g., linking sexuality to violence and the subsequent normalization of sexual violence). Therefore, this study examines student perceptions of sexual assault in the media using in-depth semi-structured interviews with 34 students and alumni. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

The Bureaucratic Burden of Identifying your Rapist and Remaining “Cooperative”: What the Sexual Assault Kit Initiative Tells us about Sexual Assault Case Attrition and Outcomes

Abstract: We analyzed a large sample of sexual assaults over almost two decades in one urban U.S. jurisdiction with previously untested sexual assault kits that were initially not successfully adjudicated (n = 717). We explored patterns of attrition through descriptive statistics and predictors of attrition through continuation-ratio modeling. Findings provide a more comprehensive framework for examining attrition, exploring the bureaucratic burden placed on victims to identify who sexually assaulted them and to remain engaged in an often harmful process and system. Implications suggest this burden could be eased via increased trauma-informed victim support and protocols and increased use of forensic evidence.

A Comparative Analysis of Foiled and Completed Mass Shootings

Abstract: This study provides a comparative analysis of foiled and completed mass shootings in the United States between 2000 and 2019. Specifically, this work quantitatively examines differences in mass shooting perpetrator, motivation, and target characteristics. Findings identify significant predictors of foiled mass shootings including student-aged perpetrators, dyads, fame and ideological motivations, as well as school and religious targets. Completed mass shootings more often involved perpetrators with a criminal history, victim-specific motivations, and targeting workplace or open-space locations. A discussion of findings highlights implications for scholars, law enforcement, policymakers, and the general public.

Police Officers’ Qualified Immunity in Excessive Force Claims, Warrant Execution, and Warrantless Searches and Arrests: Tracing the Evolution of, and Stagnation in, U.S. Supreme Court Precedents

Abstract: We analyzed all U.S. Supreme Court cases as of June 6, 2020 where private complainants filed either a §1983 action or Bivens action against police officers who claimed the defense of qualified immunity (N = 29). Empirical analysis of qualified immunity claims involving excessive force, unlawful warrant executions, and unlawful warrantless searches and arrests reveal the Court’s growing trend of ruling in favor of police officers. In 10 out of 13 cases involving excessive force claims, three out of five unlawful warrant execution claims, and nine out of 10 unlawful warrantless searches and arrests claims, the Court granted police officers’ qualified immunity. The requirement for private complainants to identify a case where the Court ruled against the officer in similar circumstances makes it extremely difficult to defeat the defense of qualified immunity. The Court should reconsider its standard of proving “clearly established rights,” an element of qualified immunity.

Cultural Stress Theory in the Context of Family Crisis Migration: Implications for Behavioral Health with Illustrations from the Adelante Boricua Study

Abstract: On September 20, 2017, Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico as a Category 4 hurricane with sustained winds of 155 miles per hour and torrential rains that ravaged the United States territory. In the midst of the crisis, several hundred thousand Maria survivors boarded humanitarian flights and cruise ships, seeking refuge on the United States mainland. More than three years later, tens of thousands of post-Maria migrants remain on the mainland as long-term emigres. In this article, we lay the theoretical/conceptual groundwork for researchers and practitioners interested in understanding the experiences of post-Maria migrants. Specifically, we aim to assist readers in thinking deeply about: [1] why many Puerto Ricans relocated, [2] the experiences of post-Maria migrants en movimiento, and [3] how such experiences shape their lives, behavior, and well-being. In understanding the experiences of post-Maria migrants, several theories/constructs emerge as especially salient. These include "push and pull" models, cultural stress theory and its transnational variants, the concept of crisis migration, and models of cumulative risk. We provide a succinct overview of each of these theories/constructs and describe the broad perspectives that serve as a foundational or orienting paradigm for our work (i.e., the life course perspective, the strengths perspective, and an ecodevelopmental framework). Finally, we provide illustrations of how these theories/concepts apply to emerging data from the Adelante Boricua study, an ongoing research project with post-Maria migrant youth and their parents, supported by funding from the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities.

Comparing Different Sources of Data to Examine Trends of Hate Crime in Absence of Official Registers

Abstract: Whether hate crime against minority groups increases or decreases over time underpins important theoretical and policy questions. However, the ability to capture trends is limited due to a dearth of data and measurement problems, especially in countries where there is no official register of hate crime. Using Chile as a case study, we compare longitudinal data from victimization surveys, registers of community organizations and mainstream media reports. The results allow us to discuss opportunities and limitations of triangulating different data sources to capture trends of hate crime. Our study results show a general increase in trends of hate crimes in Chile between 2015 and 2019, but important differences between data sources and victim groups (we consider LGBTI, migrant and Indigenous victims). We propose that the qualitative difference in the size of variation across different sources is explained by different biases of the data, which we review. This article illustrates the importance of disaggregating hate crimes because trends, correlates and key predictors often differ depending on the type of hate crime and the source of data.

An Analysis of Hate Crime Victimization Amongst Immigrants

Abstract: The primary purpose of the current study was to understand immigrant hate crime victimization in the U.S. Specifically, the authors analyzed the most recent data from the National Crime Victimization Survey to explore the factors that influence hate crime experiences and reporting by immigrant victims. Results from the binary logistic regression analyses revealed significant relationships between immigration status, citizenship status, number of prior incidents experienced as well as certain demographic characteristics and being the victim of a hate crime. Overall, being an immigrant or non-citizen, was associated with an increase in odds of being the victim of a hate crime. In terms of victims’ reporting of hate crime, immigration status had no impact, but the number of incidents experienced, being married and being less educated significantly increased reporting among victims. Numerous recommendations are provided, however, the most important step forward is the creation of a legal status category within the UCR’s Hate Crime data collection coupled with several legal protections for victims.

Neutralizing Cyber Attacks: Techniques of Neutralization and Willingness to Commit Cyber Attacks

Abstract: Cyber attacks on critical infrastructure by ideology-based hackers may have both significant financial costs and public safety consequences. Scholars have been increasingly using Sykes and Matza’s (1957) techniques of neutralization to better understand the commission of various forms of cybercrime, including that of computer hacking. This study examines the effects of techniques of neutralization on college students’ willingness to commit cyber attacks, specifically defacing websites and compromising financial and government servers, against both domestic and foreign targets. An overall techniques of neutralization scale significantly predicted being willing to commit all examined forms of cyber attacks even after controlling for peer behavior, computer skills, time spent online, and being male. The strongest support was found for the techniques of condemnation of the condemners and claim of entitlement. The implications of the findings for our understanding of why certain individuals are more willing to commit cyber attacks and the situational crime prevention efforts to remove excuses for offenders are both explored.

Cybercrime Victimization and Problematic Social Media Use: Findings from a Nationally Representative Panel Study.

Abstract: According to criminological research, online environments create new possibilities for criminal activity and deviant behavior. Problematic social media use (PSMU) is a habitual pattern of excessive use of social media platforms. Past research has suggested that PSMU predicts risky online behavior and negative life outcomes, but the relationship between PSMU and cybercrime victimization is not properly understood. In this study, we use the framework of routine activity theory (RAT) and lifestyle-exposure theory (LET) to examine the relationship between PSMU and cybercrime victimization. We analyze how PSMU is linked to cybercrime victimization experiences. We explore how PSMU predicts cybercrime victimization, especially under those risky circumstances that generally increase the probability of victimization. Our data come from nationally representative surveys, collected in Finland in 2017 and 2019. The results of the between-subjects tests show that problematic PSMU correlates relatively strongly with cybercrime victimization. Within-subjects analysis shows that increased PSMU increases the risk of victimization. Overall, the findings indicate that, along with various confounding factors, PSMU has a notable cumulative effect on victimization. The article concludes with a short summary and discussion of the possible avenues for future research on PSMU and cybercrime victimization.

Mixed Methods Research in Criminology and Criminal Justice: a Systematic Review

Abstract: The field of criminology and criminal justice encompass broad and complex multidisciplinary topics. Most of the research that falls under these areas uses either quantitative or qualitative methodologies, with historically limited use of mixed methods designs. Research utilizing mixed methods has increased within the social sciences in recent years, including a steadily growing body of mixed method research in criminal justice and criminology. The goal of this study was to examine how mixed method designs are being employed within research related to criminal justice and criminology. Our systematic review located 327 mixed method articles published between 2001 and 2017. Findings indicated most criminology and criminal justice research is being conducted within the specialty area of victimology. This study provides an overview of mixed methods research in criminology and criminal justice and also illustrates that most publications are not including methodological concepts specific to mixed methods research (e.g., integration). Along with our systematic review, we offer a series of recommendations to move mixed methods research forward in criminology and criminal justice.

History of Sexual Violence Victimization and Weapon Carrying Among Adolescents: Findings from the 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Survey

Abstract: Although prior studies have examined the association between sexual violence victimization and violent behaviors, few studies have investigated the association between sexual violence victimization and weapon carrying among adolescents in the United States The objective of this study was to investigate the association between sexual violence victimization and weapon carrying among adolescents Data for this study came from the 2019 Youth Risk Behavior Survey An analytic sample of 13,605 adolescents aged 12–18 years old was analyzed using binary logistic regression The outcome variable investigated in this study was weapon carrying during the past 30 days, and the main explanatory variable investigated was sexual violence victimization during the past year Of the 13,605 adolescents, 136% reported carrying a weapon at least once during the past 30 days A little over one in ten adolescents (118%) experienced sexual violence victimization during the past year In the multivariable logistic regression, adolescents who were victims of sexual violence had 182 times higher odds of reporting carrying a weapon when compared to their non-victimized counterparts (AOR = 182, p < 001, 95% CI = 144–230) Symptoms of depression partially attenuate the association between sexual violence victimization and weapon carrying Other significant factors associated with weapon carrying include male gender, bullying victimization, obesity, and substance use Adolescents who self-identified as Black/African American, Hispanic, or Asian were significantly less likely to carry a weapon The findings of this study underscore the importance of improving safety in schools by developing appropriate interventions to reduce sexual violence and weapon carrying among adolescents

Who Produces Online Hate?: An Examination of the Effects of Self-Control, Social Structure, & Social Learning

Abstract: The growing prevalence of hate material on the Internet has led to mounting concerns from scholars and policymakers alike. While recent scholarship has explored predictors of exposure, perception, and participation in online hate, few studies have empirically examined the social factors that lead individuals to produce cyberhate. Therefore, this work examines the production of online hate using online survey data (N = 520) of youth and young adults collected in December 2017. We draw on two commonly-cited criminological theories, the General Theory of Crime (GTC) and Social Structure-Social Learning Theory (SSSL), to understand social factors that contribute to producing cyberhate. In addition, we consider whether a broader relationship exists between the production of online hate and support for President Trump, whose rhetoric has gained traction among far-right and alt-right communities that traffic in hate. Logistic regression results show limited support for GTC, as low self-control is not a significant correlate of producing cyberhate after other relevant variables are considered. We find more robust support for SSSL, as the production of cyberhate is associated with an individual’s social location, online associations, and differential reinforcement. Moreover, we find evidence that individuals who approve of President Trump’s job performance are more likely to produce online hate.

Collateral Consequences of School Suspension: Examining the ‘Knifing off’ Hypothesis

Abstract: School exclusionary practices are routinely used in response to undesired behaviors in the school environment and have been shown to have resulted in unintentional or collateral consequences for youth, including increased risk of arrest, offending behavior, and incarceration. Little research has been done on how school exclusion impacts interaction with prosocial peers and involvement in prosocial opportunities. This study applies the labeling perspective’s knifing off concept to examine whether prosocial exposures and deviant peer associations mediate the relationship between school suspension, arrest, and offending behavior. Using data from the LONGSCAN study, we examined whether suspension led to changes in prosocial peer association and activity involvement, increases in deviant peer association, and ultimately arrest and offending behavior. Results provided support for the labeling perspective’s hypotheses, finding school suspension was indirectly associated with both arrest and offending behavior via decreases in prosocial exposures and increases in deviant peer associations. Findings suggest policy makers should consider alternatives to school suspension where possible to avoid collateral consequences like reductions in prosocial exposures and deviant peer associations and should consider applying restorative approaches following a suspension experience to reintegrate youth into prosocial communities.

Absent Father Timing and its Impact on Adolescent and Adult Criminal Behavior

Abstract: Although prior research has examined the link between having an absent biological father and self-reported delinquency, few studies have assessed the influence of the timing of paternal absence (i.e., the child’s age when father leaves) on delinquency and adult criminal behavior. Using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (Add Health), the present study examines this relationship to determine whether the timing of biological father absence impacts delinquency, adult criminal behavior, and arrest across the life course. Results reveal that biological father absence before birth was related to criminal behavior in later adulthood. Having an absent father in early childhood (birth to age 5) was related to criminal behavior in early adulthood as well as arrest. An absent biological father in late adolescence (age 14 to 18) was associated with arrest. These findings suggest that: 1) the timing of father’s absence does not have a clear pattern of impact on delinquency and arrest and 2) the negative impact of having an absent biological father—at any time—may not appear until adulthood.

Cybercrime, Differential Association, and Self-Control: Knowledge Transmission Through Online Social Learning

Abstract: In an increasingly digital world, our social interactions are increasingly moving online. Differential association and social learning theories suggest that we learn both moral definitions and the how-to of crime from those we associate with. In this paper we examine whether online or offline social learning leads to more self-disclosed forms of cyber-offending. Using a national online sample of 1,109 participants, we find both online and offline social learning are important correlates to cyber-offending. In addition, we predict that lower self-control will interact with social learning to further increase the likelihood of cyber-offending. Overall, we find that both social learning and self-control, individually and as an interaction, have a large effect-size in predicting cyber-offending.