Showing papers in "American Journal of Psychology in 1993"
TL;DR: In this paper, a new book about fuzzy set theory and its applications is presented, which can be used to explore the knowledge of the knowledge in a new way, even for only few minutes to read a book.
Abstract: Spend your time even for only few minutes to read a book. Reading a book will never reduce and waste your time to be useless. Reading, for some people become a need that is to do every day such as spending time for eating. Now, what about you? Do you like to read a book? Now, we will show you a new book enPDFd fuzzy set theory and its applications that can be a new way to explore the knowledge. When reading this book, you can get one thing to always remember in every reading time, even step by step.
4,041 citations
3,077 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the basic processes in word recognition and identification are described, and a review of current Findings and Theories can be found in Section 5.1.1].
Abstract: Contents: D. Besner, G.W. Humphreys, Basic Processes in Word Recognition and Identification: An Overview. C. Manso de Zuniga, G.W. Humphreys, L.J. Evett, Additive and Interactive Effects in the Reading of Handwriting. D. Howard, Letter-by-Letter Readers: Evidence for Parallel Processing. G.C. Van Orden, Phonological Mediation is Fundamental to Reading. P. Brown, DEREK: The Direct Encoding Routine for Evoking Knowledge. S. Monsell, The Nature and Locus of Word Frequency Effects in Reading. D.A. Balota, K. Rayner, Word Recognition Processes in Foveal and Parafoveal Vision: The Range of Influence of Lexical Variables. M.E.J. Masson, A Distributed Memory Model of Context Effects in Word Identification. J.H. Neely, Semantic Priming Effects in Visual Word Recognition: A Selective Review of Current Findings and Theories.
981 citations
336 citations
TL;DR: In this article, Moore, D.F. Hay, C.A. Shultz, and J.W. Perner, On Representing That: The Asymmetry Between Belief and Desire in Children's Theory of Mind.
Abstract: Contents: C. Moore, D. Frye, The Acquisition and Utility of Theories of Mind. D. Frye, The Origins of Intention in Infancy. D. Premack, The Infant's Theory of Self-Propelled Objects. I. Bretherton, Intentional Communication and the Development of an Understanding of Mind. R.T. Beckwith, The Language of Emotion, The Emotions, and Nominalist Bootstrapping. J. Dunn, Young Children's Understanding of Other People: Evidence from Observations Within the Family. D.F. Hay, C.A. Stimson, J. Castle, A Meeting of Minds in Infancy: Imitation and Desire. J. Perner, On Representing That: The Asymmetry Between Belief and Desire in Children's Theory of Mind. J.W. Astington, Intention in the Child's Theory of Mind. C. Moore, D. Furrow, The Development of the Language of Belief: The Expression of Relative Certainty. T.R. Shultz, Modelling Embedded Intention.
214 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the first stages of learning to read and spell words are described. And the role of intrasyllabic units in learning to learn to read is discussed, as well as the effects of instructional bias on word identification.
Abstract: Contents: Introduction. Part I: Principles and Theories. I.Y. Liberman, D. Shankweiler, Phonology and Beginning Reading: A Tutorial. K.E. Stanovich, Changing Models of Reading and Reading Acquisition. C.A. Perfetti, Representations and Awareness in the Acquisition of Reading Competence. Part II: Starting to Learn to Read. P.B. Gough, C. Juel, The First Stages of Word Recognition. L.C. Ehri, Learning to Read and Spell Words. B. Byrne, Experimental Analysis of the Child's Discovery of the Alphabetic Principle. L. Rieben, A. Meyer, C. Perregaux, Individual Differences and Lexical Representations: How Five 6-Year-Old Children Search for and Copy Words. Part III: Phonological Abilities. W.E. Tunmer, Phonological Awareness and Literacy Acquisition. V.A. Mann, Phonological Abilities: Effective Predictors of Future Reading Ability. J. Alegria, J. Morais, Segmental Analysis and Reading Acquisition. R. Treiman, The Role of Intrasyllabic Units in Learning to Read. Part IV: Reading Skill and Reading Problems. F.J. Morrison, Learning (and Not Learning) to Read: A Developmental Framework. L. Sprenger-Charolles, Word-Identification Strategies in a Picture Context: Comparisons Between "Good" and "Poor" Readers. F.R. Vellutino, D.M. Scanlon, The Effects of Instructional Bias on Word Identification.
198 citations
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142 citations
TL;DR: F. Antinucci, On the Phylogeny of Human Cognition, and the Theoretical Framework, a Comparative Approach to the Study of Cognition.
Abstract: Contents: Part I:Introduction. Antinucci, The Comparative Approach to the Study of Cognition. F. Antinucci, The Theoretical Framework. Part II:Longitudinal Study of Cognitive Ontogeny: Birth to Stage 4. G. Spinozzi, F. Natale, Early Sensorimotor Development in Gorilla. P. Poti, Early Sensorimotor Development in Macaques. G. Spinozzi, Early Sensorimotor Development in Cebus. F. Antinucci, Systematic Comparison of Early Sensorimotor Development. Part III:Cognitive Domains. F. Natale, Stage 5 Object-Concept. F. Natale, F. Antinucci, Stage 6 Object-Concept and Representation. G. Spinozzi, P. Poti, Causality I: The Support Problem. F. Natale, Causality II: The Stick Problem. Part IV:Structure and Development of Logical Cognition. F. Antinucci, Introduction to the Study of Logic. F. Natale, Patterns of Object Manipulation. G. Spinozzi, Francesco Natale, Classification. P. Poti, F. Antinucci, Logical Operations. J. Langer, Comparison with the Human Child. Part V:Conclusion. F. Antinucci, On the Phylogeny of Human Cognition.
131 citations
TL;DR: Evidence that source misattributions are affected by the nature of the test is reported and a difference in performance is attributed to the different decision criteria evoked by these two tests.
Abstract: Lindsay and Johnson (1989) and Zaragoza and Koshmider (1989) report evidence indicating that "eyewitness" subjects are much less likely to falsely claim to have seen information suggested to them verbally when they receive a source monitoring test than when they receive a recognition test requesting only identification of the seen information. The present study reports additional evidence that source misattributions are affected by the nature of the test. Intraub and Hoffman (1992) recently reported the results of a study in which subjects claimed to have seen pictures corresponding to scenes that had only been described in paragraphs they had read. With this paradigm, we found a similar effect using their test, but source confusions were reduced with a test patterned after the one used by Lindsay and Johnson. We attribute this difference in performance to the different decision criteria evoked by these two tests.
106 citations
TL;DR: In this article, Bodner et al. describe a view from mathematics: "A View of Mathematical Problem Solving in School." They also discuss a view of mathematics problems from the point of view of science.
Abstract: Contents: M.U. Smith, A View From Biology. G.M. Bodner, A View From Chemistry. G.J. Groen, V.L. Patel, A View From Medicine. D.N. Perkins, S. Schwartz, R. Simmons, A View From Programming. J.G. Greeno, A View of Mathematical Problem Solving in School. K. Schultz, J. Lochhead, A View From Physics. R.S. Perez, A View From Trouble-Shooting.
76 citations
TL;DR: This paper showed that the degree of statistical contingency between a single consequence and a single antecedent is greater when conditioning on the consequence than when condition on the antecedents, which is, of course, necessary for prediction.
Abstract: Most of our knowledge in psychology and allied social sciences is based on observing consequences and seeking antecedents. The statistical analysis of such retrospective knowledge thus involves conditioning on consequences. This article demonstrates that given the common conditions of investigating «unusual» consequences, the degree of statistical contingency between a single consequence and a single antecedent is greater when conditioning on the consequence than when conditioning on the antecedent-which is, of course, necessary for prediction. Moreover, this asymmetry is exacerbated when the investigator is free to search for antecedents in a situation involving multiple potential antecedents. This asymmetry is exacerbated to an even greater extent when the investigator relies on memory rather than recorded observations in this search
TL;DR: The role of high-level information in skilled chess memory is investigated in three experiments that explore the role of prior learning of thousands of specific «chunks» of information in expert chess memory.
Abstract: Current theories of chess expertise assume that experts can recall meaningful chess positions so well because their encoding and retrieval relies on prior learning of thousands of specific «chunks» of information. However, these theories neglect the role of high-level knowledge that is more abstract than the perceptual chunk. We investigated the role of high-level information in skilled chess memory in three experiments
TL;DR: In this paper, deaf and hearing subjects were presented with peripheral target stimuli (simple geometric shapes) presented tachistoscopically to the left or right visual fields under four conditions of foveal stimulation: (a) no stimulus; (b) simple geometric shapes; (c) pictorial shapes (outline drawings); and (d) orthographic letters).
Abstract: This research examines visual field differences in the detection and identification of a peripheral stimulus for deaf and hearing subjects, as a function of concurrent foveal stimulation. Deaf and hearing subjects were presented with peripheral target stimuli (simple geometric shapes) presented tachistoscopically to the left or right visual fields under four conditions of foveal stimulation: (a) no stimulus; (b) simple geometric shapes; (c) pictorial shapes (outline drawings); and (d) orthographic letters. Dependent measures were detection response latency and peripheral shape recognition (errors). With error data, hearing subjects showed a right field advantage under foveal conditions of no stimulus and simple shape stimulus, but a left field advantage with pictorial and letter foveal stimuli. Deaf subjects showed the opposite effect, with a left field advantage under foveal conditions of no stimulus and simple shape stimulus, but a right field advantage with pictorial and letter foveal stimuli. Latency data revealed the same pattern of results for hearing subjects, but no significant visual field differences for deaf subjects. Results are interpreted in terms of differences in hemispheric visual processing used by deaf and hearing subjects, as affected by varying conditions of foveal load.
TL;DR: Results showed that the effect of overlearning on FOK ratings was more detectable in the within- subject design than in the between-subject design, and it is suggested that future experiments on metacognition should use within-subject designs for maximal detectability of the effectof an independent variable on meetacognitive judgments.
Abstract: Conflicting results in the literature concerning the influence of overlearning on subsequent feeling of knowing (FOK) judgments for unrecallable items were resolved in an experiment that contrasted within-subject and between-subject designs. In the between-subject design, participants gave FOK judgments about items all of which had been learned to a criterion of either one or six correct recalls 4 weeks earlier. In the within-subject design, these judgments were made about the same items, half of which had been correct once and half six times. Results showed that the effect of overlearning on FOK ratings was more detectable in the within-subject design than in the between-subject design. It is suggested that future experiments on metacognition should use within-subject designs for maximal detectability of the effect of an independent variable on metacognitive judgments.
TL;DR: G.A. Zwislocki, S.J. Bolanowski, J.E. Wiegand, and L.M. Hellman as mentioned in this paper proposed a scale based on ratio and partition estimates.
Abstract: Contents: G. Stevens, Preface: A Small Oral History. G.A. Gescheider, S.J. Bolanowski, Jr., Introduction to Conference on Ratio Scaling of Psychological Magnitudes. R.D. Luce, What Is a Ratio in Ratio Scaling. J.J. Zwislocki, Natural Measurement. L.E. Marks, The Dynamics of Ratio Scaling. J.C. Stevens, Magnitude Matching: Application to Special Populations. M. Guirao, A Single Scale Based on Ratio and Partition Estimates. L.M. Ward, Associative Measurement of Psychological Magnitude. L.E. Krueger, Toward a Unified Psychophysical Law and Beyond. B.J. Cowart, Derivation of an Index of Discrimination From Magnitude Estimation Ratings. E. Galanter, T.E. Wiegand, Multiple Moduli and Payoff Functions in Psychophysical Scaling. M.B. Berglund, Quality Assurance in Environmental Psychophysics. R.B. Barlow, Jr., Brightness Sensation and the Neural Coding of Light Intensity. D. Algom, W.S. Cain, Chemosensory Representation in Perception and Memory. B. Scharf, Loudness Adaptation Measured by the Method of Successive Magnitude Estimation. R.P. Hellman, Loudness Measurement by Magnitude Scaling: Implications for Intensity Coding. S. Namba, S. Kuwano, The Loudness of Non-steady State Sounds: Is a Ratio Scale Applicable? L.M. Bartoshuk, Ratio Scaling, Taste Genetics, and Taste Pathologies. R.T. Verrillo, Measurement of Vibrotactile Sensation Magnitude. S. Bolanowski, Jr., J.J. Zwislocki, G.A. Gescheider, Intersensory Generality of Psychological Units. G.A. Gescheider, S.J. Bolanowski, Jr., Final Comments on Ratio Scaling of Psychological Magnitudes.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a taxonomy of learning skills in the context of a training media and technology, including audiovisual media computer-based learning simulators.
Abstract: Part 1 Introduction, John E. Morrison: changes to conceptual underpinnings changes to the nature of work issues in training research. Part 2 Skill acquisition, John Annett: analysis of problems evidence of learning theories of skill aquisition neural bases of motor learning summary and conclusions. Part 3 Skill retention, Joel D. Schendel and Joseph D. Hagman: task variables procedural variables learner variables predicting retention summary and conclusions. Part 4 Transfer of training, Dennis H. Holding: basic designs measurement of transfer traditional issues special problems explanations of transfer summary and conclusions. Part 5 Types of analysis, J. Patrick: the role of analysis types of analysis task-oriented approaches psychological taxonomies knowledge representation summary and conclusions. Part 6 Instructional strategies, Gavan Lintern: theoretical perspective empirical perspective issues part training adaptive training flight simulation discussion summary and conclusions. Part 7 Trainee characteristics, Phillip L. Ackerman and Patrick C. Kyllonen: basic concepts acquisition of perceptual-motor skills acquisition of knowledge and cognitive skills learner characteristics in the context of a "taxonomy of learning skills" aptitude-treatment interaction theory and research summary and conclusions. Part 8 Training media and technology, Greg Kearsley: audiovisual media computer based learning simulators choosing media and technologies implementation issues summary and conclusions. Part 9 Organizational and social factors, Gary P. Latham and Susan R. Crandall: organizational culture organization-wide factors social factors summary and conclusions. Part 10 Review and outlook, Dennis H. Holding and John E. Morrison.
TL;DR: Experts increased their recall of specific diagnostic interpretations contained in their initial problem-solving experience while novices did not demonstrate evidence of their problem representations in recalling case information.
Abstract: Few studies of problem-solving expertise in professional domains have undertaken independent assessments of how domain-specific knowledge contributes to the development of problem representations as well as subsequent memory for task information. These issues were investigated in the present study by asking participants at three levels of training and experience (novice, trainee, and expert) in a medical specialty to solve two complex diagnostic problems (patient cases) selected from medical records of a university hospital. The subjects were also asked to provide an incidental free recall of the patient information contained in each case immediately after problem solving and one week later. Problem representations (identified as "lines of reasoning") used by each subject in each case were determined from an analysis of thinking-aloud protocols generated during problem solving. The three groups did not differ on the overall amount of case information recalled at the immediate retention test and did not show selective recall for information statements that were directly relevant to the lines of reasoning used during problem solving. After one week, however, the expert physicians remembered fewer information units than novices but showed selective retention for case information contained in the lines of reasoning used to reach a diagnosis. Experts also increased their recall of specific diagnostic interpretations contained in their initial problem-solving experience while novices did not demonstrate evidence of their problem representations in recalling case information.
TL;DR: The results suggest that the effects of typography change on repetition priming in word-fragment completion reflect explicit recollection, and that the representation that supports repetitionPriming effects observed with amnesic subjects in the word-Fragmentpletion task does not code typography information.
Abstract: Patients with amnesia resulting from alcoholic Korsakoff syndrome and elderly control patients studied a list of words in two typographies (typed and handwritten) and then received a word-fragment completion test (e.g., − ys−e−y for mystery) in which the test cues also varied in typography. Unlike the elderly control patients, the amnesic patients did not show greater priming effect when the typography at test matched that at study. The amount of typography-dependent priming was positively correlated with the score on the Wechsler Memory Scale. These results suggest that the effects of typography change on repetition priming in word-fragment completion reflect explicit recollection, and that the representation that supports repetition priming effects observed with amnesic subjects in the word-fragment completion task does not code typography information
TL;DR: The theory of the inner senses as mentioned in this paper was based on the psychology of Aristotle and the anatomical discoveries of Galen; its demise followed Vesalius's discovery that the anatomy on which it was based was incorrect.
Abstract: This article analyzes the theory of the inner senses, a theory of cognition and neuropsychology that had wide acceptance in Europe from the fourth to the sixteenth centuries. The theory proposed that incoming sensory information was processed successively in three linearly arranged ventricles of the brain. It was based on the psychology of Aristotle and the anatomical discoveries of Galen; its demise followed Vesalius's discovery that the anatomy on which it was based was incorrect. The theory of the inner senses contains many modern features and can be regarded as a considerable scientific achievement
TL;DR: This article used a dual coding model to predict the recall of text events in a city map and then heard a text in which events were associated with map features. But their results were not supported by elaboration theory.
Abstract: In two experiments, undergraduates studied a city map and then heard a text in which events were associated with map features. Memory for the structural properties of the map directly predicted the recall of text events. These results can be explained by a dual coding model, but not by elaboration theory
TL;DR: Arguments are presented that discredit the blocking hypothesis as a potential mechanism responsible for impairment found with postevent misinformation experiments that use short retention intervals and various rejection mechanisms are favorably assessed.
Abstract: Whether interpolated recall or recognition tests will enhance the impairing influence of postevent misinformation on a final modified recognition test of original event information was examined in two experiments. Both used short retention intervals. Postevent information led to differences between control and misled conditions on interpolated tests, but no differences were found on modified tests. Arguments are presented that discredit the blocking hypothesis as a potential mechanism responsible for impairment found with postevent misinformation experiments that use short retention intervals. Instead, various rejection mechanisms are favorably assessed.
TL;DR: In this paper, the distinction between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal was investigated in four experiments and four experiments were conducted in four different domains: maintenance, elaborative re-planning, rehearsal, and rehearsal.
Abstract: The distinction between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal was investigated in four experiments
TL;DR: College students often serve as participants in psychological research and the effects of three methods of recruiting subjects for laboratory tests of attention and memory were assessed in a series of studies.
Abstract: College students often serve as participants in psychological research. The effects of three methods of recruiting subjects for laboratory tests of attention and memory were assessed in a series of studies. The performance of students who received monetary incentives and the performance of students who received course-credit incentives were compared with the performance of students recruited from classes where research participation was a requirement. Monetary incentives resulted in slight, but significant, improvements in performance on tests of sustained attention and recognition memory. Course-credit incentives did not affect subjects' test performance. Test performance did not differ as a function of the time of the semester when studies were conducted. Recruitment issues pertinent to departmental subject pools are discussed.
TL;DR: It is concluded that fundamental processes involved in pattern recognition are unlikely to vary with personality measures, such as category width, which is a cognitive variable that purportedly reveals individual differences in categorization strategy.
Abstract: Category width, as defined by Pettigrew's (1958) Category Width Scale, is a cognitive variable that purportedly reveals individual differences in categorization strategy. Subjects differ in terms of broadness and narrowness of judgments of category width--to what extent they will accept exemplars as good instances of a category. We tested the hypothesis that category width would be related to how subjects behave in different speech perception tasks. Differences found between extremely broad and narrow categorizers on such tasks would be helpful in understanding the nature of the perceptual and cognitive processes underlying the category width distinction. No effects attributable to category width were found when results were analyzed in terms of subjects' (a) discrimination and feature evaluation of auditory and visual information in speech events, (b) integration of these sources of information, (c) the process of decision, and (d) subjective preference for a two-choice versus a nine-choice response method. The results from both male and female and broad and narrow categorizers supported the predictions made by a fuzzy logical model of perception (FLMP). In the FLMP, people have access to continuous information about each feature of a stimulus, they make independent evaluations of each feature based on this information, the various features are integrated, and a decision is made based on the relative support for the viable alternatives. Given the common processes involved in speech and other pattern perceptual-recognition tasks, we conclude that fundamental processes involved in pattern recognition are unlikely to vary with personality measures, such as category width.
TL;DR: Inspection time (IT) indexes the ability to discriminate between test stimuli under conditions of varied and limited exposure time as discussed by the authors, and the finding of a difference between subjects reporting use and nonuse of an apparent movement strategy, the use of which diminishes the IT/IQ relationship.
Abstract: Inspection time (IT) indexes the ability to discriminate between test stimuli under conditions of varied and limited exposure time. Two experiments were conducted to replicate and extend previous findings. Experiment 1 replicated the basic finding of an IT/IQ relationship and the finding of a difference between subjects reporting use and nonuse of an apparent-movement strategy, the use of which diminishes the IT/IQ relationship. Experiment 2 varied a number of factors in attempts to remove the use of the apparent-movement strategy. Although none of these manipulations had the predicted effect of reducing strategy use, conditions were found in which subjects reporting strategy use showed more robust correlations to IQ than had been previously reported. In addition, significant task effects, practice effects, and bias effects are reported and discussed
TL;DR: Three experiments showed that the pattern of interference of single-modality Stroop tests also exists cross-modally, and support the existence of a semantic component of aCross-modal Stroop-like effect.
Abstract: Three experiments showed that the pattern of interference of single-modality Stroop tests also exists cross-modally. Distractors and targets were either pictures or auditory words. In a naming task (Experiment 1), word distractors from the same semantic category as picture targets interfered with picture naming more than did semantically unrelated distractors; the semantic category of picture distractors did not differentially affect word naming. In a categorization task (Experiment 2), this Stroop-like effect was reversed: Picture distractors from the same semantic category as word targets interfered less with word categorization than picture distractors that were semantically unrelated; the semantic category of word distractors did not differentially affect picture categorization. Experiment 3 replicated these effects when each subject performed both tasks; the task, naming or categorizing, determined the pattern of interference between pictures and auditory words. The results thus support the existence of a semantic component of a cross-modal Stroop-like effect.
TL;DR: Results indicated that giving a specific time goal for coping with pain minimized the time distortion and time estimations of subjects in pain with a specified goal were found to be significantly longer (and more accurate) than time estimation of subjects who were in pain but not given a time-specific goal.
Abstract: The cold pressor test was used to investigate the effect of specific versus nonspecific time-oriented goals on perception of time by a person experiencing pain. Headache pain has been shown to attenuate the retrospective estimates of time passage. In the present study, laboratory-induced (cold pressor) pain produced results congruent with those of a previous clinical report on headache. In addition, results indicated that giving a specific time goal for coping with pain minimized the time distortion. Time estimations of subjects in pain with a specified goal were found to be significantly longer (and more accurate) than time estimations of subjects who were in pain but not given a time-specific goal.