Showing papers in "Behaviour & Information Technology in 1991"
TL;DR: Reading speed and comprehension were equivalent for the high-quality CRTs and the book, suggesting that the paperless office may be imminent after all.
Abstract: Past research has demonstrated that reading efficiency is lower from the standard computer displays of the 1980s than from paper. In the present experiments, subjects read or skimmed stories, sometimes from a high-quality CRT (cathode ray tube) and sometimes from a book. Skimming was 41% slower from the CRTs than from the book. Possible reasons for this finding are discussed. Reading speed and comprehension were equivalent for the high-quality CRTs and the book. The paperless office may be imminent after all.
204 citations
TL;DR: The authors found that the computer-dependent individuals who took part in the study were intelligent, interesting, hospitable, but misunderstood people, who from experience had learned to mistrust humans, and by exploring their environments had become true scientists and philosophers.
Abstract: The research was inspired by comments from the press and concerned academics who suggested that computer use could convert 'normal' people into antisocial, machine-code junkies. Contrary to such opinions, the computer-dependent individuals who took part in the study were intelligent, interesting, hospitable, but misunderstood people, who from experience had learned to mistrust humans. Instead from an early age, they had turned to the safe and predictable world of the inanimate, and by exploring their environments had become true scientists and philosophers. Their responses were far from neurotic, instead they were logical coping strategies which allowed them to make sense of the world within which they lived. They were pursuing an interest which not only provided intellectual challenge and excitement in infinite variety, but for most also enabled them to turn a fascinating hobby into a successful means of earning a living; an ideal to which most would aspire.
189 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated aspects of communicative processes and outcome, using face-to-face, and computer-mediated communication, and found no differences in problem-solving efficiency due to medium used, but difficulties to reach consensus in inexperienced groups.
Abstract: The study reports results from an experiment investigating aspects of communicative processes and outcome, using face-to-face, and computer-mediated communication. Degree of consensus, communication pattern, attitudes to media, and personality (extroversion-introversion) were studied. The subjects operated computer-mediated systems as a daily work-tool. There were two different problems to be discussed; a human relations problem and a problem involving judgement of important equipment for survival after an airplane-crash. The results showed no differences in problem-solving efficiency due to medium used, but difficulties to reach consensus in the inexperienced groups. There were no main effects of medium on equality and dominance, but several significant results in the survival problem, showing that face-to-face communication induces more conformity and opinion change as compared to computer-mediated communication. Face-to-face communication was preferred and there were only weak relationships be...
132 citations
TL;DR: Support for evaluation in the form of a framework for describing and guiding the general activity is considered, following a definition of evaluation, and a framework is proposed that attempts to clarify what can be done towards which goals and how it can bedone.
Abstract: Successful human factors evaluation of interactive computer systems has tended to rely heavily on the experience of the practitioner, who has had little explicit support on which to draw. This paper concerns support for evaluation in the form of a framework for describing and guiding the general activity. The paper starts with a critique of current approaches to evaluation, and particularly of evaluation within the ‘design for usability’ approach. Following a definition of evaluation, a framework is proposed that attempts to clarify what can be done towards which goals and how it can be done. This highlights and discusses notions of system performance, of assessment statements, and of assessment methods. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications of the framework for evaluation practice.
128 citations
TL;DR: The prevalent systems-rationalist perspective on CMC is outlined, which sees the medium primarily as an efficient channel for information transfer in specific organizational tasks, and critically reviews the evidence that studies of users' perceptions and media preferences offer for this generalized view.
Abstract: Users' comparisons between computer-mediated communication (CMC) and other forms of communication are of theoretical interest and have important implications for system design and implementation. This paper outlines the prevalent systems-rationalist perspective on CMC, which sees the medium primarily as an efficient channel for information transfer in specific organizational tasks, and critically reviews the evidence that studies of users' perceptions and media preferences offer for this generalized view. In advocating a widening of our perspective on CMC, a field study is described in which electronic mail users within a large commercial telecommunications company were invited to compare eight different communication activities, using repertory grid technique. From a total of 91 user-generated constructs, five principal dimensions were identified that accounted for users' discriminations among the different activities. Electronic mailing was construed as being similar to written activities (such...
99 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a theoretical discussion of mental models is interwoven with conversational data from an interview study concerned with people's beliefs about the working of high-street bank machines.
Abstract: A theoretical discussion of mental models is interwoven with conversational data from an interview study concerned with people's beliefs about the working of high-street bank machines. The data show that some users do spontaneously form explanatory models of bank machines, and further allow some insights into the ways in which models are constructed. The discussion focuses on the variety inherent in subjects' models; on the spontaneous analogies they invoke; on the use of cultural, linguistic metaphor and its relation to explanatory models; and on the observed preference for references to direct empirical experience.
88 citations
TL;DR: Assessment of the usability of menu items constructed of text, icons, and text-and-icons suggests that menus constructed of a mixed format result in the fewest number of incorrect selections by users.
Abstract: This paper presents a methodology and results of an experiment to assess the usability of menu items constructed of text, icons, and text-and-icons. Attributes of menu items are used to form a matrix which can be used to classify menu items for use in certain applications, tasks, or with users of particular experience levels. An experiment was conducted to validate a portion of the attribute matrix. Performance measures were accuracy of selection and time to make a selection. Results suggest that menus constructed of a mixed format (text and icons) result in the fewest number of incorrect selections by users. No significant differences in the time to make a selection were found.
65 citations
TL;DR: Performance on such common graphical formats as line graphs, bar charts and pie charts constructed with and without the 3D look is evaluated, finding that both 3D line graphs and bar charts were used more quickly than 2D formats, but this speed was obtained at the expense of accuracy.
Abstract: Embellishing simple graphs by adding perspective, 'the 3D look, has become increasingly commonplace with the ready availability of graphics software. However, the effect of adding such decorative depth on the comprehension and recall of the graph's message has received little attention. The present study evaluated performance on such common graphical formats as line graphs, bar charts and pie charts constructed with and without the 3D look. When subjects were asked to make relative magnitude estimations, only the 3D line graphs resulted in reliable performance decrements. Likewise, information presented in 3D line graphs was remembered less accurately than information presented in 2D line graphs. For the estimation of global trends, both 3D line graphs and bar charts were used more quickly than 2D formats, but this speed was obtained at the expense of accuracy. For a trend classification task involving more focused processing, 3D line graphs and bar charts were associated with an overall performa...
65 citations
TL;DR: From this perspective, program design is seen to deviate from the top-down, breadth-first model proposed by previous studies, and is viewed as opportunistic in the sense that elements of the design can be created a...
Abstract: Early studies of programming and of other more general planning and problem-solving activities emphasized the hierarchical nature of such tasks. For instance, the dominant approach to problem-solving and planning views such processes as top-down focused activities which start from high level goals that are in turn decomposed into achievable actions via a successive refinement process. Similarly, empirical studies of the programming activity have highlighted such top-down and breadth-first decomposition strategies. These processes are also clearly mirrored in prescriptive accounts of the programming task. More recent characterizations of the programming activity present an alternative view—one which emphasizes the broadly opportunistic nature of the programming process. From this perspective, program design is seen to deviate from the top-down, breadth-first model proposed by previous studies. Here, program design is viewed as opportunistic in the sense that elements of the design can be created a...
58 citations
TL;DR: A number of potential problems which designers may face in the process of conducting usability tests on their products are discussed, including difficulties in sampling, methodological problems in planning and conducting tests, validity and reliability of obtained measures, and misinterpretation of results.
Abstract: Although usability testing may be a well accepted and widely practised component of the commercial software development process, improper application of testing techniques may lead to poorly designed software. The present paper discusses a number of potential problems which designers may face in the process of conducting usability tests on their products. These problems may include difficulties in sampling, methodological problems in planning and conducting tests, validity and reliability of obtained measures, and misinterpretation of results. A number of suggestions to avoid or lessen the impact of these problems are also discussed.
48 citations
TL;DR: The research lays the groundwork for a taxonomy of visual representations by establishing a methodology for determining the kinds of knowledge conveyed by different graphical representations, and confirms the original categories and revealed distinct differences between subjects who did or did not have graphic arts training.
Abstract: The research lays the groundwork for a taxonomy of visual representations by establishing a methodology for determining the kinds of knowledge conveyed by different graphical representations. In the first of two experiments, the basic categories and dimensions of a set of graphics were established using a sorting procedure. Five principal categories emerged: graphs/tables, maps, diagrams, networks, and icons. Furthermore, two principal dimensions characterize these groups: amount of spatial information and amount of cognitive processing effort. The second experiment validated and extended this understanding of the cognitive structure of visual representations. In that experiment, similarity among items was assessed using pairwise similarity judgements. The results confirmed the original categories and revealed distinct differences between subjects who did or did not have graphic arts training.
TL;DR: In one department which was characterized by a well established culture, the communication system was integrated fairly easily and thereby reinforced the culture and in a second department, which was in the middle of a strong internal cultural conflict, the new technology was used unsuccessfully by one subgroup to support cultural change.
Abstract: As part of a study investigating the implementation of an office communication system and its effects on work and organizational processes in a large transportation company, reciprocal effects between organizational culture and the new technology were analysed It was found that in one department which was characterized by a well established culture, the communication system was integrated fairly easily and thereby reinforced the culture In a second department, which was in the middle of a strong internal cultural conflict, the new technology was used unsuccessfully by one subgroup to support cultural change By refusing to use the communication system in the intended way, the other members of the department resisted that attempt In both departments, the technology did not effect a change, rather it was integrated into pre-existing cultural patterns
TL;DR: The paper outlines some conceptual considerations in separating out terms applied to computer user samples and suggests a basis for a fuller reporting of sample parameters which would aid comparison between reported studies.
Abstract: There are many research reports directed at establishing the characteristics and needs of new or inexperienced computer users, and indeed these have been the topic of at least three substantial review articles in the last decade. Most of these studies, however, make little effort to report carefully the defining characteristics of their samples beyond the use of intuitive and tautologous labels such as ‘expert’ or ‘naive’ and so on. Inevitably this leads to difficulties in interpretation and generalization of findings. The paper outlines some conceptual considerations in separating out terms applied to computer user samples and suggests a basis for a fuller reporting of sample parameters which would aid comparison between reported studies.
TL;DR: This paper examined the relationship between managerial competence and the poor record of British companies in successfully introducing new technology and argued that too much attention is paid to the final decisions taken by managers, and their consequences, and not enough to the context in which the decisions are arrived at.
Abstract: Much concern has been expressed over the last few years regarding the lack of success of British companies when introducing new technology. Though many explanations have been given for this, often there is one common factor: the competence of British managers. This article examines the relationship between managerial competence and the poor record of British companies in successfully introducing new technology. It argues that in examining these issues too much attention is paid to the final decisions taken by managers, and their consequences, and not enough to the context— the organizational circumstances— in which the decisions are arrived at. It begins by examining the impact of organizational structures and practices (socio-structure) on managerial decision-making. Empirical evidence relating to the purchase of computer systems is presented which shows how socio-structure limits and shapes managerial behaviour and success with new technology. It then proceeds to discuss the relationship betwee...
TL;DR: Investigating the impact that customizing the user interface has on the effect that the users' cognitive styles have on the success of an information system suggests that if the interface to OA system can be customized, then system designers do not need to consider the users's cognitive styles explicitly when they are designing the system.
Abstract: The paper investigates the impact that customizing the user interface has on the effect that the users' cognitive styles have on the success of an information system. The study was carried out on an office automation. (OA) system, which was implemented in an institution of higher learning to support the top administrators in their work. Pearson and Bailey's user information satisfaction (UIS) instrument was used to measure the success of the system, while the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) was used to determine the cognitive style of the user. The results provided evidence that support the proposition that by customizing the interface to suit the idiosyncrasies of the user, the effect that the cognitive style of the user has on the success of the OA system can be reduced, if not removed. This result suggests that if the interface to OA system can be customized, then system designers do not need to consider the users' cognitive styles explicitly when they are designing the system.
TL;DR: Computer science students are able to learn HyperCard programming in between two and three days using an incremental learning approach, and have several problems in understanding the layered object hierarchy in the system.
Abstract: Computer science students are able to learn HyperCard programming in between two and three days using an incremental learning approach. They have several problems in understanding the layered object hierarchy in the system.
TL;DR: A set of five measures is applied to evaluate users’ interactions with spreadsheet software, and to compare two spreadsheet packages to assess understanding of the basic concepts involved in the use of spreadsheets.
Abstract: The issues of ‘usability’ and ‘learnability’ are assuming an increasingly important role for both the designers of software and their prospective customers. Objective measures of the interaction between system and user are important for the development of software that is both easy to learn and pleasurable to use. In this study we apply a set of five measures to evaluate users’ interactions with spreadsheet software, and to compare two spreadsheet packages. We tested 16 people with no previous experience of spreadsheets and 16 with experience of spreadsheets generally though not of the spreadsheet we gave them. Half were allocated to learn Excel and half to learn Wingz, running on Apple Macintosh computers. A standard task was constructed to assess understanding of the basic concepts involved in the use of • spreadsheets. Users’ previous experience of spreadsheet use was the most salient factor in the scores achieved on the task. The brand of spreadsheet had no significant effect on task performa...
TL;DR: A comprehensive cause-and-effect model is developed, using extensive confirmation from the literature, and a conceptual measure of user satisfaction is constructed, based on the conjecture that stress, or lack thereof, is an appropriate indicator of the user's level of (dis)satisfaction with a system.
Abstract: Human stress in a computer-related job situation can result from a variety of causes. A comprehensive cause-and-effect model is developed, using extensive confirmation from the literature. Then, the components of user satisfaction are defined and a conceptual measure of user satisfaction is constructed. These definitions use the same cause-and-effect relationships that were identified for user stress. Based on the conjecture that stress, or lack thereof, is an appropriate indicator of the user's level of (dis)satisfaction with a system, a measurement methodology is proposed. It is intended to determine both how satisfied a user is with an interface and what the causes of (dis)satisfaction might be. Techniques for obtaining objective indicators of the user's stress levels are surveyed. A general experimental procedure is outlined and its verification is described. The methodology is considered to be particularly important for application to critical, high-pressure jobs, such as those in air traffi...
TL;DR: This article found that subjects who had higher numerical skills than spatial skills expressed significantly more confidence in their decisions in a problem-solving task; however, decision accuracy scores were not signifi...
Abstract: Confidence and accuracy in decision making are often unrelated, contrary to popular belief. In practice, confidence is often relied upon as evidence of good decision making, since the quality of a decision is difficult to determine at the time the decision is made. Information systems are increasingly used to assist decision making in organizations. Researchers believe that task, information system, and human characteristics affect the relationship between accuracy and confidence. In this research, manipulation of task, system, or human characteristics that led to an increase in confidence in decision making did not lead to an increase in decision accuracy and vice versa. In this study decision accuracy was judged by a decision process measure instead of a decision outcome measure. It was observed that subjects who had higher numerical skills than spatial skills expressed significantly more confidence in their decisions in a problem solving task; however, decision accuracy scores were not signifi...
IBM1
TL;DR: This research note describes animated icons that are implemented which attempt to address issues related to the ease of learning and use of iconic interfaces in general and how can icons provide more helpful information to users regarding their intended use.
Abstract: Animated icons may offer substantial advantage over static icons for human-computer communication. Nonetheless, problems and challenges remain. For example, the constant motion of animated icons can be distracting or tedious for users. Another challenge relates to the ease of learning and use of iconic interfaces in general: how can icons provide more helpful information to users regarding their intended use? In this research note, we describe animated icons we have implemented which attempt to address these issues.
TL;DR: If effective knowledge-based support is to be provided for software designers, the process of software design, and the classes of knowledge used by designers must be understood more clearly, a study carried out to gain insights into this quest.
Abstract: If effective knowledge-based support is to be provided for software designers, the process of software design, and the classes of knowledge used by designers must be understood more clearly. It has been shown that a software designer's experience of designing software in the current application domain has a significant effect on the production of a quality design. However, in gaining experience of designing software, a designer gains knowledge in various distinct areas, including software design and the application domain. It is currently unclear which elements of this experience are important. In particular, the role of application domain knowledge that is independent of software design is of great significance for builders of intelligent software design support systems, since the overheads involved in providing application domain knowledge for a variety of application domains in such systems would be huge. This paper reports on a study that has been carried out to gain insights into this questi...
TL;DR: A recently introduced office automation system at Swedish Telecom is investigated, where 275 users answered an inventory and indicated that they found the system useful.
Abstract: We investigated a recently introduced office automation system at Swedish Telecom. In a first study, where 275 users answered an inventory, the users indicated that they found the system useful, b ...
TL;DR: Questions from the computer managers of 265 Swedish companies were analysed and results show that formal training, i.e., teacher-directed group instruction, and self-studies using instruction manuals represented nearly two-thirds of all reported training forms.
Abstract: This study concerns how user training on newly introduced computer application programs is carried out. Questionnaire data from the computer managers of 265 Swedish companies were analysed. The results show that formal training, i.e., teacher-directed group instruction, and self-studies using instruction manuals represented nearly two-thirds of all reported training forms. For the most recently introduced program, classes (group instruction) with simultaneous computer exercises was the form of formal training that was nearly always used. When formal training was given it was compulsory in over half of the cases. However, substitutes for users attending a training course were only provided by the company in very few of these cases. The implications of these findings for effective user training are discussed.
TL;DR: A model of a human neural knowledge processing system is presented that suggests that an entity in the outside world lends to be locally encoded in neural networks so that the conceptual information structure is mirrored in its physical implementation.
Abstract: A model of a human neural knowledge processing system is presented that suggests the following. First, an entity in the outside world lends to be locally encoded in neural networks so that the conceptual information structure is mirrored in its physical implementation. Second, the knowledge of problem solving is implemented in a quite implicit way in the internal structure of the neural network (a functional group of associated hidden neurons and their connections to entity neurons) not in individual neurons or connections. Third, the knowledge system is organized and implemented in a modular fashion in neural networks according to the local specialization of problem solving where a module of neural network implements an inter-related group of knowledge such as a schema, and different modules have similar processing mechanisms, but differ in their input and output patterns. A neural network module can be tuned just as a schema structure can be adapted for changing environments. Three experiments ...
TL;DR: The evidence so far available suggests that this representation of a complex industrial plant consisting of a hierarchy of displays of mass and energy flow functions supports the kind of reasoning and principles required in fault diagnosis and learning to understand plant dynamics.
Abstract: The paper describes the representation of a complex industrial plant consisting of a hierarchy of displays of mass and energy flow functions. The evidence so far available suggests that this representation supports the kind of reasoning and principles required in fault diagnosis and learning to understand plant dynamics.
TL;DR: The fuzzy set representation has several advantages, including flexibility in expressing uncertain knowledge during elicitation, representation of the knowledge and its uncertainty as a unique entity, easy interfacing with classical systems, and a more robust system in ill-defined domains.
Abstract: Fuzzy sets are adequate forms of knowledge representation when the information is uncertain due to vagueness and imprecision. Knowledge structures using fuzzy sets are similar to those implemented in non-fuzzy systems. Classical knowledge elicitation methods can be used in combination with techniques to develop membership functions. The fuzzy set representation has several advantages, including flexibility in expressing uncertain knowledge during elicitation, representation of the knowledge and its uncertainty as a unique entity, easy interfacing with classical systems, and a more robust system in ill-defined domains. These advantages result in increased system reliability.
TL;DR: Specific feedback is found to be effective in enhancing decision consistency, but its impact its compromised by the presence of additional non-specific feedback in a laboratory experiment.
Abstract: Well-designed feedback can improve decision-making, but to date, there has been no comprehensive study of feedback in decision support systems that could guide developers in its design. This work examines the opportunities and means to enhance the user's consistency in implementing a decision strategy (a plan for making the decision) by providing appropriate feedback. It concentrates on the specificity of feedback. Feedback is said to be specific if it provides details about the decision-making process that help correct the process; feedback is non-specific if it merely reports outcome without indicating what caused it. The paper builds on concepts from cognitive engineering, behavioural decision-making, and systems design to examine how computer-generated feedback enhances the user's decision consistency, and reports on a laboratory experiment. Specific feedback is found to be effective in enhancing decision consistency, but its impact its compromised by the presence of additional non-specific f...
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compared and contrasted three methodological approaches developed at the HUSAT Research Institute to define the applicability of a human factors input to IT systems design, each approach is detailed in terms of its developmental domain, content, applicability and availability.
Abstract: Parameters for defining the applicability of a human factors input to IT systems design are outlined first. The paper then compares and contrasts three methodological approaches developed at the HUSAT Research Institute. Each approach is detailed in terms of its developmental domain, content, applicability and availability. Commonalities in the three approaches are then investigated and an outline of the uptake of each approach is given. In conclusion, summary advice is offered on selection criteria for the three techniques.
TL;DR: Students’ short-term recall of the software syntax being taught is as strong with computer-based instruction as with human instruction, and the ability to comprehend and immediately apply the software to apply to spreadsheets is strong.
Abstract: The increasing need to instruct students in the use of personal computer software, especially electronic spreadsheets, is placing greater demands on the already full university curriculum. A potential help in meeting these demands is the readily available computer-based software tutorials. In order to explore the feasibility of computer-based instruction as an alternative to human instruction, this research compares two modes of instruction, computer-based and human. An experiment was conducted with groups of business student subjects. The research results indicate no difference in students‘ attitude towards computer-based instruction and human instruction of spreadsheets. Students’ short-term recall of the software syntax being taught is as strong with computer-based instruction as with human instruction. These results were not affected by the level of personal computer experience that students had prior to the experiment. However, the ability to comprehend and immediately apply the software to ...
TL;DR: It is argued that cathode ray tube displays make the neural computation more complex than it needs to be because they pulsate in brightness, they present a visual image which is spatially periodic but which demands precise control of eye movement, and the spectral power distribution of light emitted by the phosphor is uneven.
Abstract: Vision is the result of complex neural computation. It is argued that cathode ray tube displays make the neural computation more complex than it needs to be because (1) they pulsate in brightness; (2) they present a visual image which is spatially periodic but which demands precise control of eye movement; and (3) the spectral power distribution of light emitted by the phosphor is uneven.