Showing papers in "Cognitive Therapy and Research in 1977"
TL;DR: In this paper, two experimental tests of self-efficacy theory of behavioral change were conducted to investigate how desensitization effects changes in avoidance behavior by creating and strengthening expectations of personal efficacy.
Abstract: This article reports the findings of two experimental tests of self-efficacy theory of behavioral change. The first study investigated the hypothesis that systematic desensitization effects changes in avoidance behavior by creating and strengthening expectations of personal efficacy. Thorough extinction of anxiety arousal to visualized threats by desensitization treatment produced differential increases in self-efficacy. In accord with prediction, microanalysis of congruence between self-efficacy and performance showed self-efficacy to be a highly accurate predictor of degree of behavioral change following complete desensitization. The findings also lend support to the view that perceived self-efficacy mediates anxiety arousal. The second experiment investigated the process of efficacy and behavioral change during the course of treatment by participant modeling. Self-efficacy proved to be a superior predictor of amount of behavioral improvement phobics gained from partial mastery of threats at different phases of treatment.
1,298 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, 75 journal reviewers were asked to referee manuscripts which described identical experimental procedures but which reported positive, negative, mixed, or no results, showing poor interrater agreement and strongly biased against manuscripts which reported results contrary to their theoretical perspective.
Abstract: Confirmatory bias is the tendency to emphasize and believe experiences which support one's views and to ignore or discredit those which do not. The effects of this tendency have been repeatedly documented in clinical research. However, its ramifications for the behavior of scientists have yet to be adequately explored. For example, although publication is a critical element in determining the contribution and impact of scientific findings, little research attention has been devoted to the variables operative in journal review policies. In the present study, 75 journal reviewers were asked to referee manuscripts which described identical experimental procedures but which reported positive, negative, mixed, or no results. In addition to showing poor interrater agreement, reviewers were strongly biased against manuscripts which reported results contrary to their theoretical perspective. The implications of these findings for epistemology and the peer review system are briefly addressed.
886 citations
TL;DR: Cognitive therapy resulted in significantly greater improvement than did pharmacotherapy on both a self-administered measure of depression (Beck Depression Inventory) and clinical ratings (Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression and Raskin Scale) and follow-up contacts indicate that treatment gains evident at termination were maintained over time.
Abstract: Forty-one unipolar depressed outpatients were randomly assigned to individual treatment with either cognitive therapy (N =19)or imipramine (N =22).As a group, the patients had been intermittently or chronically depressed with a mean period of 8.8 years since the onset of their first episode of depression, and 75%were suicidal. For the cognitive therapy patients, the treatment protocol specified a maximum of 20 interviews over a period of 12 weeks. The pharmacotherapy patients received up to 250 mg/day of imipramine for a maximum of 12 weeks. Patients who completed cognitive therapy averaged 10.90 weeks in treatment; those in pharmacotherapy averaged 10.86 weeks. Both treatment groups showed statistically significant decreases in depressive symptomatology. Cognitive therapy resulted in significantly greater improvement than did pharmacotherapy on both a self-administered measure of depression (Beck Depression Inventory)and clinical ratings (Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression and Raskin Scale).Moreover, 78.9%of the patients in cognitive therapy showed marked improvement or complete remission of symptoms as compared to 22.7%of the pharmacotherapy patients. In addition, both treatment groups showed substantial decrease in anxiety ratings. The dropout rate was significantly higher with pharmacotherapy (8 Ss)than with cognitive therapy (1 S).Even when these dropouts were excluded from data analysis, the cognitive therapy patients showed a significantly greater improvement than the pharmacotherapy patients. Follow-up contacts at three and six months indicate that treatment gains evident at termination were maintained over time. Moreover, while 68%of the pharmacotherapy group re-entered treatment for depression, only 16%of the psychotherapy patients did so.
789 citations
TL;DR: For example, this article found that varying patterns of cognition may be strongly correlated with successful and superior gymnastic performance, such as self-verbalization, self-focus, and mental imagery.
Abstract: Thirteen male gymnasts were given a standard questionnaire and interviewed during the final trials for the U.S. Olympic team. Particular attention was given to psychological factors and cognitive strategies in their training and competition. Using their final competitive grouping as the primary dependent variable, correlations were performed to assess the relationship between these factors and superior athletic performance. Data from this exploratory study suggested that varying patterns of cognition may be strongly correlated with successful and superior gymnastic performance. Specifically, dream frequency, self-verbalizations, and certain forms of mental imagery seemed to differentiate the best gymnasts from those who failed to make the Olympic team. These two groups also appeared to show different anxiety patterns and different methods of coping with competitive stress. The implications of these results for sport psychology are briefly discussed.
612 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors tested the hypothesis that self-regulation of refractory behavior varies as a function of goal proximity and found that proximal and distal goal setting enhanced self-directed change as measured by reductions in both eating behavior and weight.
Abstract: The present experiment tested the hypothesis that self-regulation of refractory behavior varies as a function of goal proximity. Obese subjects were assigned to conditions in which they either monitored their eating behavior, monitored their eating behavior and set subgoals for reducing the amount of food consumed, or received no treatment. Within the goal-setting conditions, subjects adopted either distal goals defined in terms of weekly goal limits or proximal goals specifying the goal limits for each of four time periods during each day. Goal setting enhanced self-directed change as measured by reductions in both eating behavior and weight. The higher the goal attainments, the greater were the losses in weight. Proximal and distal goal setting yielded comparable overall results because the majority of subjects assigned remote goals altered this condition by adopting proximal goals to augment control over their own behavior. Within the distal goal-setting condition, the adherents to distal goals achieved relatively small changes, whereas those who improvised proximal subgoals for themselves attained substantial reductions on the multifaceted measures of self-directed change. The combined evidence lends support to the motivational and regulative functions of proximal intentions and highlights the reciprocal influence processes that operate in self-directed change.
308 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effectiveness of a cognitively oriented stress coping training program designed to provide skills for coping with daily life stresses as a treatment for tension headache was evaluated, and the results were interpreted as providing support for a cognitive approach to the treatment of tension headache.
Abstract: This study assessed the effectiveness of a cognitively oriented stress coping training program designed to provide skills for coping with daily life stresses as a treatment for tension headache. Thirty-one community residents with chronic tension headaches were assigned to stress-coping training (N =10),to biofeedback training (N =11),or to a waiting-list control group (N =10).Treatment procedures were accompanied by counterdemand instructions designed to minimize the influence of implicit demands for improved performance. Although only the biofeedback training group showed reductions in frontalis electromyographic activity, only the stress-coping training group showed substantial improvement on daily recordings of headache. These results were interpreted as providing support for a cognitive approach to the treatment of tension headache. Questions concerning the part played by nonspecific treatment factors in biofeedback training were also raised.
200 citations
TL;DR: For instance, this article found that subjects who believed that they had consumed alcohol showed significantly less increase in heart rate than those who consumed tonic only, regardless of the actual content of their drinks.
Abstract: Thirty-two male social drinkers were randomly assigned to one of two expectancy conditions in which they were led to believe that the beverage they consumed contained either vodka and tonic or tonic only. For half of the subjects in each expectancy condition, the beverage actually contained vodka; the others drank only tonic. After their drinks, subjects' heart rates were monitored during a brief social interaction with a female confederate. Self-report and questionnaire measures of social anxiety were taken before and after the interaction. Subjects who believed that they had consumed alcohol showed significantly less increase in heart rate than those who believed that they consumed tonic only, regardless of the actual content of their drinks. There was no effect of alcohol per se. The theoretical implications of these results are briefly discussed.
166 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors compared cognitive therapy based on the proposals of Beck (1963) and Ellis (1970), and on Bandura (1971) and Marston (1964), compared both with a behavioral approach derived from Ferster (1965),Lazarus (1968),and Lewinsohn (1974) and with a treatment that combined these two strategies.
Abstract: Cognitive therapy based on the proposals of Beck (1963)and Ellis (1970),and on Bandura (1971)and Marston (1964),was compared both with a behavioral approach derived from Ferster (1965),Lazarus (1968),and Lewinsohn (1974)and with a treatment that combined these two strategies. Twenty-eight mild to moderately depressed subjects were randomly allocated to one of the three groups or a no-treatment waiting list control group. The results indicated that the three treatment groups improved significantly more than waiting list controls on all measures, and there were no differences between the cognitive therapy alone and the behavioral intervention alone on any measure. However, the combined group was more effective than the average of either of its components alone in reducing depression as measured by Beck's Depression Inventory and Dempsey's (1964)D-30 Scale, and these results were replicated with the data derived from a self-esteem and a self-acceptance variant of Kelly's (1955)Repertory Grid. Similar, but nonsignificant, trends were observed on Aitken's (1969)Visual Analogue Scale (a subjective evaluation of depressed mood),on the Multiple Affect Adjective Checklist, and on Eysenck's Personality Inventory.
154 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors evaluated three hypotheses derived from a cognitive behavioral model of depression and found that clinically depressed subjects, relative to psychopathological and normal controls, would underestimate their recall of high but not of low rates of externally controlled positive feedback.
Abstract: This study evaluated three hypotheses derived from a cognitive behavioral model of depression. It was predicted that clinically depressed subjects, relative to psychopathological and normal controls, would underestimate their recall of high but not of low rates of externally controlled positive feedback. Although no specific prediction was made, data were also collected to determine whether such a cognitive distortion, if it occurred, took place at the point of stimulus perception or at some subsequent state of cognitive processing. Finally, it was predicted that the clinically depressed subjects, relative to the control subjects, would distort their perception of neutral feedback in a negative direction. The data indicated that the depressed subjects recalledhaving received less positive feedback than did the controls at the high but not the low rate of feedback. No between group differences were obtained for the subjects' immediate perception of positive or of neutral feedback. The implications of these data for the cognitive behavioral conceptualization and treatment of depression are discussed.
142 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors outline the verbal self-instruction procedures, delineate their specific relevancy for self-control problems, and briefly review the outcome literature, and discuss the cognitive capacity of children, the use of contingent incentives, and issues regarding generalization.
Abstract: With a specific focus on children, the present paper outlines the verbal self-instruction procedures, delineates their specific relevancy for self-control problems, and briefly reviews the outcome literature. The cognitive capacity of the children, the use of contingent incentives, and issues regarding generalization are discussed. Throughout the article there is a balanced consideration of both practical guidelines and research questions.
106 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the problem-solving skills of 30 Ph.D. scientists were compared to those of 15 conservative Protestant ministers, and the results showed that the reasoning skills of the scientists were not significantly different from those of nonscientists.
Abstract: The problem-solving skills of 30 Ph.D. scientists were compared to those of 15 conservative Protestant ministers. Of particular interest was the frequency with which these groups generated confirmatory (rather than disconfirmatory)experiments to test their hypotheses. Experimental results showed that—contrary to a popular assumption—the reasoning skills of the scientists were not significantly different from those of nonscientists. In this study, the ministers showed a longer latency to speculation and generated more experiments per hypothesis than did the scientists. These findings are discussed in terms of the psychology of the scientist.
TL;DR: The stress inoculation paradigm for helping clients deal with pain consists of education about the psychological dimensions of pain a la Melzack, training in a number of coping skills relevant to each dimension, and practice in applying these skills to the noxious stimulus as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: The stress inoculation paradigm for helping clients deal with pain consists of education about the psychological dimensions of pain a la Melzack, training in a number of coping skills relevant to each dimension, and practice in applying these skills to the noxious stimulus. In order to determine which of these treatment components have a reactive effect, 70 screened clients were randomly assigned to one of five treatment conditions. The cold pressor and pressure algometer tasks, respectively, yielded three direct and three generalization measures. On all direct measures coping skills training resulted in highly significant improvement. Neither education (i.e., insight)nor exposure had any effect. In comparison to a nonspecific treatment the stress inoculation package proved useful on two direct measures; however, on the generalization measures neither stress inoculation nor any of its components had any impact. Heart rate changes, observed for exploratory purposes, were consistent with current research and speculation.
TL;DR: A good many years ago when I first set for myself the task of writing a manual of clinical procedures it was with the idea that psychologists needed to get their feet on the ground, and I was out to help them do it as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: A good many years ago when I first set for myself the task of writing a manual of clinical procedures it was with the idea that psychologists needed to get their feet on the ground, and I was out to help them do it. Other scientists had gotten their feet on the ground; why couldn ' t we? Elsewhere all about us there were those hardy breeds who had penetrated the frontiers of reality with boldness and forthrightness. Practical men they were who, with each bedrock discovery, discredited all those generations of anemic philosophers who never dared venture beyond the comforts of their own redundancies. And yet here was the gloomiest vista of all, the mind of man, only one step a w a y a deep cavern so close behind our very own eyes and still enshadowed in Delphian mystery. And here we were, psychologists, standing on one foot wanting very much to be scientis ts--and more than a little defensive about it, too-cha t te r ing away and so frightened of what we might see that we never dared take a close look. Fancying myself thus as a practical man and seeing science as something which was, above all things, practical, it seemed that whatever I could do to bring psychologists into contact with human beings, novel as that might be, would help extricate psychology f rom the mishmash of its abstruse definitions. So I proposed to write as much as I knew about how to come to terms with living persons, I took as my prototypes the ones who confided in me, particularly those who were in trouble, because, as I saw it, when a person is in trouble he acts more like what he is and less like some-
TL;DR: In this paper, a philosophy of critical and cautious self-scrutiny has much more to offer than one of unbridled enthusiasm and defensiveness for cognitive behavioral approaches, and three major challenges facing contemporary workers in this area are: (a) a clearer demonstration of enduring effectiveness with clinically revelant problems, (b) refinements in our conceptualization and analysis of therapeutic process, and (c) clearer specification of the operations and procedures employed in various therapies.
Abstract: Although cognitive-behavioral approaches have now earned substantial recognition within clinical psychology, they face a host of challenges which merit careful attention. In the interest of their own refinement and growth, a philosophy of critical and cautious self-scrutiny has much more to offer than one of unbridled enthusiasm and defensiveness. Three of the major challenges facing contemporary workers in this area are (a)a clearer demonstration of enduring effectiveness with clinically revelant problems, (b)refinements in our conceptualization and analysis of therapeutic process, and (c)a clearer specification of the operations and procedures employed in various therapies. But perhaps the greatest problem facing cognitive therapy researchers is the tendency of confirmatory bias—i.e., selective reporting, emphasis, and publication of studies which “support” cognitive hypotheses. Unless we communicate and seriously examine “negative results” and replicational failures, we will encourage a distorted view of our knowledge and, more importantly, sacrifice the invaluable information which these “failures” might offer toward the refinement of our models and procedures.
TL;DR: In this paper, two female subjects cognitively rehearsed previously rated, important self-referent statements while psychophysiological measures of arousal (heart rate, skin conductance, and finger pulse volume) were recorded.
Abstract: Thirty-two female subjects cognitively rehearsed previously rated, important self-referent statements while psychophysiological measures of arousal (heart rate, skin conductance, and finger pulse volume)were recorded. The self-statements, based on academic, social, and family-parental problem areas, were either positively or negatively valenced. Additionally, the self-statements varied on the degree of discrepancy (distance from the the subject's belief about herself)and were presented along with neutral statements. No difference between the valenced self-statements and the neutral statements was shown by any physiological measure. For skin conductance, a significant valence by discrepancy interaction indicated that the negative, moderately discrepant statements induced greater arousal than the positive, moderately discrepant self-statements. The skin conductance results are interpreted via cognitive-behavioral and social judgment theory, and the therapeutic implications are discussed.
TL;DR: In this article, the role of social reinforcement and the possible consequences of the common "conspiracy of silence" which often follows the loss of a loved one is examined. But, the authors focus on the cognitive-behavioral analysis of the disorder.
Abstract: Traditional views of grief are briefly examined, and a cognitive-behavioral analysis is offered. Particular attention is given to the role of social reinforcement and the possible consequences of the common “conspiracy of silence” which often follows the loss of a loved one. In this latter pattern, family and friends may withhold information about the death, avoid discussing the dead person, and remove all signs of the deceased from a patient's environment. The prolonged grief reactions which sometimes follow this type of reaction are likened to the Napalkov phenomenon and Eysenck's hypothesis about incubation of distress. To explore the implications of this analysis, four cases of pathological grief were treated with prolonged exposure to the stimuli producing grief and a rescheduling of social reinforcement. Remarkable success was observed in all cases despite their chronic nature, and suggestions are made for more controlled evaluation of this treatment strategy.
TL;DR: The literature contains few reports of behavior therapy used to treat compulsive gamblers as discussed by the authors, however, there are no reports of behaviour therapists using a cognitive learning approach with a covert conditioning therapy for treating compulsive gambling.
Abstract: The literature contains few reports of behavior therapy used to treat compulsive gamblers. Desensitization (Draft, 1970),electrical aversion (Goorney, 1968; Seager, 1969),and a multifaceted approach including faradic shock, covert sensitization, massed practice, and time-out (Cotler, 1971)have been reported with mixed results. The increasing interest of behavior therapists in cognitive-symbolic mediation is well documented (Bandura, 1969; Mahoney, 1974; Meichenbaum, 1976);however, there are no reports of behavior therapists using a cognitive learning approach with a covert conditioning therapy to treat compulsive gambling. Such an approach is described in the present case report.
TL;DR: In this article, it was shown that failure produces subsequent impairment in performance not because subjects are helpless but because they are misdirected about the nature of the solution, rather than because they test incorrect hypotheses.
Abstract: Seligman and his associates demonstrated that following a series of uncontrollable, stressful events dogs fail to respond on simple tasks. Seligman accounted for this with a learned-helplessness hypothesis, that uncontrollable events produce a subject who perceives that response is useless and whose motivation to respond is weakened. Recently, analogous experiments have been performed with adult human subjects. Impairment of problem solving has been demonstrated following failure on a prior task. The same learned-helplessness hypothesis has been invoked for this result. The present thesis is that these human experiments may be equally well interpreted by Hypothesis Theory. According to Hypothesis Theory, failure produces subsequent impairment in performance not because subjects are helpless but because they are misdirected about the nature of the solution. That is, these subjects are not passive. Rather, they test incorrect hypotheses. Experimental data are presented to suggest the validity of the Hypothesis Theory interpretation.
TL;DR: In this article, two cognitive behavioral methods, one emphasizing imagery, the other verbalizations, were used by speech-anxious subjects, half of whom showed greater right hemisphere usage, half greater left hemisphere usage as indicated by their lateral eye movements in response to reflective questions.
Abstract: Some cognitive behavior therapy methods focus upon verbal cognition, others place more emphasis upon imagery. These two modes of cognition are represented differently in the brain: In most individuals imagery is a function of the right cerebral hemisphere and verbal cognition is processed in the left hemisphere. Two cognitive behavioral methods, one emphasizing imagery, the other verbalizations, were used by speech-anxious subjects, half of whom showed greater right hemisphere usage, half greater left hemisphere usage as indicated by their lateral eye movements in response to reflective questions. Although only approaching significance, the results suggested that treatment was most effective if it employed cognition of the subjects nonpreferred hemisphere. This may suggest that clients with clear imagery may benefit more from a verbal strategy, while clients with frequent self-verbalization may benefit more by using coping imagery.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors discuss research issues pertaining to the conceptualization, methodology, and clinical utility of covert conditioning techniques, including the problems of extrapolating laboratory concepts and procedures to covert conditioning and the evidence pertaining to such extrapolations.
Abstract: The present paper discusses research issues pertaining to the conceptualization, methodology, and clinical utility of covert conditioning techniques. The conceptual issues include the problems of extrapolating laboratory concepts and procedures to covert conditioning techniques and the evidence pertaining to the viability of such extrapolations. The methodological issues address the nature of imagery processes and the importance of assessing ongoing imagery to ensure that client imagery follows the scenes described by the therapist and to discover imagery processes that may enhance treatment. In general, several basic research questions need to be addressed pertaining to the theoretical basis of covert conditioning techniques, a description of what actually occurs in imagery on the part of the client, and whether select techniques should serve as a treatment of choice when other options are available.
TL;DR: In this paper, a pre-and post-treatment bogus biofeedback assessment was conducted during which time subjects self-recorded "time in alpha" as a supposed measure of their relaxation abilities, which was then compared to external ratings in order to assess the accuracy of self-report data.
Abstract: Eighteen subjects, self-referred for tension and anxiety, were randomly assigned to either a Reliability Enhancement Package (composed of cognitive consistency, consequence clarification, public commitment, and cueing manipulations)or an Attention-Control condition. Subjects in both groups received anxiety-oriented treatment in the form of progressive relaxation training. A pre- and posttreatment bogus biofeedback assessment was conducted during which time subjects self-recorded “time in alpha” as a supposed measure of their relaxation abilities. Experimental procedures (i.e., REP and AC)were administered prior to the posttreatment assessment session. Self-recorded alpha records were then compared to external ratings in order to assess the accuracy of self-report data. Results indicated significantly greater inaccuracy scores at posttreatment for Attention-Control as compared to Reliability Enhancement subjects (p < .005).Moreover, errors committed were in the direction of overestimating time in alpha (p < .02).These results were discussed with regard to mediational manipulations and expanding self-observational research strategies.
TL;DR: In this paper, the effects of two modes of cognitively representing rewards on delay of gratification were compared and it was found that there was an interaction between cognitive representation and instructional set, consistent with their hypothesis.
Abstract: A study was conducted comparing the effects of two modes of cognitively representing rewards on delay of gratification. Nursery school children were told to think about the rewards in a delay situation as either “real” or “pictures.” They were also given instructions designed to elicit either arousal or cueing functions of the cognitive representations. It was found that previously obtained differences of focusing on actual or symbolic rewards were found also when the children represented the rewards cognitively. It was also found that, consistent with our hypothesis, there was an interaction between cognitive representation and instructional set. These results are discussed in terms of Berlyne's (1960)and Estes's (1972)distinction between two functions of a reward stimulus.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compared direct, modeled, or imaginal shocks administered by therapist or recipient for 60 women college students with severe nail-biting habits with self-report and objective measures but with no outcome differences among treatments.
Abstract: Direct, modeled, or imaginal shocks administered by therapist or recipient were compared as aversion techniques for 60 women college students with severe nail-biting habits. All methods increased habit control (p <.001)on self-report and objective measures but with no outcome differences among treatments. Providing mental rehearsal guidance for extralaboratory use failed to alter outcome but raised client optimism to ward therapy. Vicarious aversion produced the most rapid heart rates and, typically, the greatest subjective arousal; no data suggested that direct shock was superior. In a second study with unselected student volunteers of both sexes, modeled shock consistently surpassed imaginal shock in ratings of perceived badness, subjective discomfort, and vividness of covert pain (p <.01).Treatment and ethical implications were discussed.
TL;DR: The Mahoney-DeMonbreun experiment and Bowers's reaction to it raise a number of issues in the methodology of scientific research that deserve careful scrutiny as mentioned in this paper, and this note attempts to highlight some of the problems underlying the positions of both articles, to show why these authors stated their cases as they did.
Abstract: The Mahoney-DeMonbreun \"experiment\" and Bowers's reaction to it raise a number of issues in the methodology of scientific research that deserve careful scrutiny. This note attempts to highlight some of the problems underlying the positions of both articles, to show why these authors stated their cases as they did. When it is seen that there are important differences between inquiry and assessment, and that \"solving a problem\" ambiguously may refer to either, one can understand that there is little if any real conflict between Bowers and Mahoney.
TL;DR: The Mahoney-DeMonbreum experiment as mentioned in this paper is a classic example of such an experiment, and it can be seen as an example of how scientific inquiry can be embodied in the experimental paradigm.
Abstract: Perhaps the reader of the Mahoney-DeMonbreum paper is as discomfitted as I was when I first read it. It is an intriguing and somewhat chastening effort. At the same time, the perspicacious reader may have the gnawing doubt that he's been \"had , \" that there is an elusive feature about the experimental paradigm that is subtly problematic and misleading. I suspect that this feeling of uneasiness stems from the conviction that scientists are surely better versed in scientific inquiry than fundamentalist ministers, and that an experiment that (apparently) falsifies this conviction must somehow be unrepresentative of the true state of affairs. Nevertheless, data are data, and since psychologists are often very impressed with empirical results, such doubts may never surface and assert themselves. But stay--the doubts are justified, even though we can learn much from the experiment. My remarks will first concentrate on analysis of the experiment itself and then shift to an examination of how well it embodies scientific inquiry generally.
TL;DR: In this article, volunteer smokers were assigned to four experimental groups: (1) self-monitoring control; (2) covert modeling; (3) covert modeling with high value-high rate overt consequation of between-session rehearsals of covert modeling scenes; and (4)covert modeling with low value-low rate overt consequence of rehearsals.
Abstract: Undergraduate volunteer smokers (final N =36)were assigned to four experimental groups: (1)self-monitoring control; (2)covert modeling; (3)covert modeling with high value-high rate overt consequation of between-session rehearsals of covert modeling scenes; and (4)covert modeling with low value-low rate overt consequation of rehearsals. All groups self-monitored smoking frequency, urge frequency, and urge intensity throughout the duration of the 4-week experiment and during the 1-month follow-up. A variety of checks indicated that the experimental manipulations were adequately implemented. All experimental groups except covert modeling alone, which failed to exhibit changes across time, produced the typical V-shaped reduction in smoking frequency that has been found with most smoking reduction programs. The other research questions, possible enhancement of covert modeling by overt motivational or signaling consequences, therefore remained unanswered in the present study.