Showing papers in "Criminology in 1980"

Determinants of attitudes toward city police

Abstract: This paper reports the results of a survey of attitudes toward police and police service among 273 citizens in 4 neighborhoods in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Extensive socioeconomic and personal history data were collected for all individuals. Results indicate that personal history. particularly respondents’ perceptions of the way in which specific officers have related to them personally in previous encounters. is a more signijicant determinant of general attitudes towards police than were all socioeconomic variables including race and income. Results thus suggest that positive styles of policing will significantly aflect police-community relations, and that police-community relations programs stressing officer-citizen interaction in a law enforcement context will have the highest probability of success.

Role stress, custody orientation, and disciplinary actions

Abstract: Shifting correctional philosophies and institutional policies concerning the handling and control of inmates have contributed to experiences of role stress among prison guards. The present study, based on questionnaire responses of 144 prison guards from a maximum security prison, suggests that role stress is resolved by an intensified commitment to the custodial role. A major consequence of this is a higher rate of disciplinary reports filed by the guards. Apparently, an increased custody orientation disposes guards to a pattern of closer surveillance and control of the inmate population. This study concludes with a discussion of the implications of our findings for guardinmate relationships and for the administration of justice in the prison setting.

Role Conflict in Correctional Institutions

Abstract: The divergent and often incompatible goals of treatment and custody within correctional organizations frequently result in ambiguous role expectations and role conflict among prison personnel. Hypotheses that role conflict is significantly greater among staff in treatment institutions than among staff in custodv institutions. Is significantly greater among treatment staff than among custody staff, and is significantly related to both job satisfaction and punitive attitudes toward inmates are tested with questionnaire data obtained from 336 treatment and custody personnel within 6 adult correctional facilities. Although the bivariate analyses provide support for each of the hypotheses, subsequent analyses indicate that role conflict is more likely to be the product of the organizational goals of the institution than of the treatment or custody staff positions within those institutions. These findings are related to previous analyses of the treatment-custody dilemma within institutions, and the implications for future research are discussed.

Trends in female delinquency

Abstract: National arrest statistics combined with juvenile court, self-report, and field observational data are used to evaluate current conceptions of the changing nature of female delinquency. Adolescent females made arrest gains in the categories of larceny (e.g., shoplifting). liquor law violations (e.g. underage drinking), and runaways. Studies of juvenile gangs show no increase in female violence or gang-related delinquencies while self-report data show that, with the exception of marijuana use and drinking, female delinquency has remained generally stable over the past decade. We conclude that patterns of female delinquency, especially as revealed in nonofficial sources of evidence, have changed very little in recent years and that female delinquency continues to reflect traditional sex roles. The evidence suggests that the Women's Movement has had little or no effect on female delinquency. At the end of the report. we suggest alternative views regarding female delinquency and the forces shaping it.

Social class and delinquent behavior

Abstract: The apparent refutation by self-report studies of social class-related theories of juvenile delinquency is critically reviewed. Improper conceptualization and operationalization of “social class” are considered to be primary causes of inconsistent findings. A more appropriate “underclasslearning class” model of stratification is suggested. Although no empirical support is found for a relationship between self-reported delinquent behavior and socioeconomic status of father's occupation. indications are that social class is somewhat more related to self-reported delinquency using the underclass/earning class model. However, there is no reason to expect social class to emerge as a major correlate of delinquent behavior no matter how it is measured.

The new myth of class and crime

Abstract: On the basis of a reanalysis of the empirical evidence. Tittle et al. (1978) concluded that the presumed inverse relationship between class and crime is a myth. We discuss six problems in their evaluation: paucity of evidence; lack of specification of theoretical relationships; faulty specification and measures of class; inadequate operational definitions of “crime”; faulty analysis of evidence; and failure to examine all evidence. We conclude that the empirical evidence supports the hypothesis that low class position is a source of serious crimes against persons and property.

The regulation of interaction by police

Abstract: Scholars agree that a preoccupation of police is the maintenance of their authority during encounters with civilians. There is little knowledge of how they seek to do this. Using a subset of process data from a large, quantitative, observational field study of police, the authors analyze it from the perspective of general systems theory. They find that authority is maintained in most cases by much more subtle means than past studies have identified.

Police employment and suburban crime

Abstract: Although politicians, police, and others have often advocated the expansion of police employment in the effort to control crime, the empirical relationship between police employment and crime rates has seldom been systematically explored. This study incorporates variables which are causally related both to crime and police employment roles for the 252 northern and northeastern suburbs for which police employment and crime data are available for 1970–1972. Separate analyses of violent and property crime are undertaken, incorporating data on police employment as a causally related variable along with several other determinants of crime identified in earlier studies. The analysis suggests that police employment and crime rates are reciprocally related, and that these relationships offer more support for a “labeling” than a “deterrence” perspective.

The neutralization of criminal offense

Abstract: A previously untested proposition from Sykes and Matza's neutralization theory is that certain types of offenders will favor certain types of neutralizing excuses. Murderers, for example. may tend toward denial of responsibility or denial of the victim. A competing hypothesis, derived from Hindelang's challenges to neutralization and drift theories, is that offenders would favor excuses keyed to offenses similar to their own. Robbers, for example, may favor excuses for robbery over excuses for other offenses. regardless of the content of the excuses themselves. The data presented in this article, based on o survey of inmates in four Florida prisons, fail to support either hypothesis. This may suggest that the two perspectives from which the hypotheses are derived are overly simplistic-that the nature of crime and delinquency is more subtle and complex than indicated by either the subcultural or antisubcultural theoretical traditions.

Pretrial release and bail decisions

Abstract: This study examines the relative effects of a number of legal and extralegal factors on (1) the decision to release on recognizance and (2) the decision on amount of money bail. Social science research on these issues has been sparse compared to that on other phases of the criminal justice process. Findings from a regression analysis show that the first step of the bond disposition process, the recognizance decision, is influenced by several factors. The demeanor of defendants in open court is the most important. Net of other influences, good demeanor increases the probability of release on recognizance by 34.8%. In cases where recognizance is denied, only two variables are related significantly to the amount of money bond. Net of other influences, a felony offense (as opposed to a misdemeanor) increases predicted bail by $2300, and poor demeanor increases the predicted bail required by $1600.

SOME MISLEADING CONCEPTIONS IN SENTENCING RESEARCH: An Example and a Reformulation in the Juvenile Court

Abstract: Most studies of sentencing practices in both adult and juvenile courts have compared the relative power to predict dispositions of “legal” variables, such as the seriousness of offense and previous arrest record, and “extralegal” variables, such as race and social class. It is suggested that this is a misleading model for research on the decision-making process in juvenile courts. Instead, results presented here indicate that the juvenile court uses a model of substantive decision-making oriented toward the character and social environment of offenders. Social background variables are found to be more important determinants of disposition than either “legal” or “extralegal” variables.

Social status and deviance

Abstract: The relationship between social class and four measures of deviance was examined within the context of schools with predominantly upper-middleclass. middle-class, and working-class populations. The hypothesis that there would be significant inverse relationships between social class and rates of deviant behavior within working-class but not upper-middle- or middle-class schools was not supported by our data. There also was no consistent support found for the hypothesis that working-class schools should have higher rates of deviance. The fact that even when we contextualize the social class/delinquency relationship we fail to find a significant inverse relationship, further confirms the conclusion that social class does not appear to be an important predictor of delinquency.

Constructing cross-cultural theories in criminology

Abstract: Over the past twenty years, researchers have, once again, discovered the benefits of studying a phenomenon cross-culturally, and a revival of the method is currently underway. However, criminologists currently use the method to determine the scope and generalizability of their theories, which were orginally developed for use in one particular culture. Due to problems in this approach, their activities have been met with varied success. The purpose of this article is to examine the use of the cross-cultural research method in constructing and testing criminological theories. The article will distinguish between the use of a method to determine a theory's scope and generalizability (Evaluative Approach) and the use of the method to construct explanatory models designed to transcend cultural boundaries (Generative Approach). The article will conclude with a detailed discussion of the latter.

Sex crimes in the subway

Abstract: This article describes the nature, extent, and ramifications of non-felonies sex crimes (sexual abuse and public lewdness) committed in the New York City subway system. Sex crime on the transit system falls into three categories (1) genital exhibitionism, (2) physical molestation, involving some kind of contact but without resulting in serious physical injury, and (3) physical assault resulting in sexual penetration. Although neither exhibitionism nor genital rubbing (frottage) are confined to the subways, a quality peculiar to the physical setting of the subway makes it a preferred site for both of these types of sex offenders. In 1977, Transit Police Department statistics accounted for roughly 75 percent of New York City's total sexual abuse and public lewdness arrests (comparable figures are available for 1976 and early 1978). This study reviewed transit police records of 2,529 sex crime complaints and arrests made between January 1977 and June 1978. Over one half were in the category of public lewdness cases; somewhat less than half were designated sexual abuse offenses; and relatively few cases (95 total) of rape, attempted rape and sodomy were reported. Offenders were predominatly black and hispanics; victims white, youthful, and unexceptional in looks. Data suggests that the stereotype of the physically innocuous and relatively passive exhibitionist is invalid. Recidivists in the group (150) had a higher rate of prior arrests for assaultive sex crimes (13 percent). Data emerging from statewide arrest records indicated that these recidivists committed a total of 221 violent non-sexual crimes in addition to the rape and sodomy arrests. When both sexually and non-sexually assaultive crime arrests are combined, over 50 percent of the group had prior arrests for assaultive crime. Among those recidivists with prior or subsequent arrests for rape or sodomy, the original non-felonious sex charge was just as likely to have been public lewdness as sexual abuse. Possible pre-disposing factors in the victim population suggest future research. Data tables and footnotes are included.

Women, race, and crime

Abstract: This article examines the interrelationships among women, race, and crime as presented by Adler. The empirical assertions concerning the pattern of crime for black and white males and females are examined using victim survey data. It was concluded that the explanations for racial differences in female crime and delinquency advanced by Adler have little value since the empirical differences they purport to explain are not supported by the data.

Chinatown's immigrant gangs

Abstract: The rise of Chinese youth gangs in urban centers in North America is a social phenomenon that has gained prominence in the past decade and a half. This study examines the characteristics and processes of four gangs operating in the Chinatown of Vancouver, Canada, over a three-year period (1975-1978). The gangs were composed entirely of teenaged immigrants recently arrived from Hong Kong who were engaged in a wide variety of antisocial and criminal behaviors. Three sociocultural antecendents are identified as important in the development of Chinese youth gangs: (1) the weakening among many Hong Kong immigrants of the traditional Chinese pattern of close parental guidance and supervision; (2) the resultant emergence of youth peer-groups who challenge parental authority and Chinese values; (3) the strong attraction of North American success symbols for gang members, and their perceived inability to achieve success through legitimate means because of difficulties in learning English.

Labeling and identity

Abstract: This article is both a response to criticism of some of the aurhor's work on Abstract the relevance of labeling to adolescent self-conceptions and an attempt to reconcile divergent findings. Through a reanalysis of the data under question, it was found that both official labeling and self-reporred delinquency are related to delinquent self-images but that self-reported delinquency is more closely associated with such images than official labels. In an effort to reconcile divergent findings, there was some indication in the data that the impact of official labeling may vary depending on the extent of involvement in delinquency. The most pressing task regarding this issue is further study of the variable meaning of labels and sanctions in different sociocultural and group contexts.

Prison guards' attitudes toward components of the criminal justice system

Abstract: Only recently has there been very much interest in prison guards, their behavior, or their attitudes. Although prisons and their prisoners have been the subject of many investigations, the keepers have been overlooked. This article reports guards’attitudes toward the criminal justice system and suggests what these attitudes may mean.

RANDOM ASSIGNMENT IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE RESEARCH Some Ethical and Legal Issues

Abstract: Randomization techniques entail sound methodological means to assign participants to groups for experimental purposes. However, prior to applying this technique to criminal justice research, several ethical and legal issues must be considered. For example, in a legal context, the objectivity afforded by the randomization process may be interpreted as “arbitrary.” Similarly, depriving control group participants of the presumed benefits of a newly launched program may be regarded as unethical. It may be possible to adapt the randomization procedure to experimental contingencies. However, caution must then be taken in carrying out the adaptation, as the methodological rigor and hence the interpretability of the results may be affected.

TREATMENT OF DELINQUENT YOUTH: The Influence of the Juvenile Probation Offer's Perceptions of Self and Work

Abstract: This article examines the relative influences of the juvenile probation officer's perceptions of self and work on his or her opinions of delinquency and decisions made about juveniles. Self-administered questionnaires were completed by 255 juvenile probation officers. Results indicate that the officer who is treatment-service oriented is less likely to label juvenile acts delinquent than the officer who responds to lawyer role models. Officers who make rehabilitative recommendations are less likely to label acts delinquent than those who do not. The independent variables accounted for a rural of 21.3% of the variance in the dependent variable, the officer's perception of treatment.

Double marginality of black policemen

Abstract: This article explores the extent to which black policemen are victims of “double marginality” (Alex. 1969). From secondary data on 576 black male policemen in a large metropolitan area, it was found that the concept of double marginality has little explanatory power in accounting for variation in either black officers' perception of public involvement in police affairs or black officers' perception of police authority. These findings raise serious questions about the general applicability of the marginality concept in explaining black officer' perceptions today.

A sense of injustice

Abstract: The literature on the impact of processing a defendant through the criminal justice system has long assumed that this experience created a “sense of injustice” for defendants which militated against rehabilitative efforts within correctional settings. The current research examined this assumption with data collected from a sample of inmates in a medium and a maximum security institution within a midwestern state. The findings serve to question the assumption of the development of a sense of injustice, as most inmates perceive themselves as having been treated fairly by the criminal justice system. It is also found that there is little relationship between attitudes toward the preprison criminal justice system and measures of prisonization. The results are discussed in reference to their relevance to the functional and importation models of prisonization.

Too dumb to know better

Abstract: Throughout history, three traits have commonly been stressed as characteristic of the bad woman: her irresolution. her promiscuity, and her responsibility for the downfull of others. These traits were amplified by a series of studies of “cacogenic” families which appeared between 1874 and 1926. The family studies offered seemingly scientific proof that the bad woman was the source of many social problems and an important criminal type in her own right. The process by which the family studies helped remodel the image of the bad woman is examined as are effects of that remodeling on institutionalization policy. The development of this new image of the bad woman is explained, in part, by the fact that the family studies were financed by wealthy eugenists; these sponsors stood to gain from the increased social control which, the family studies showed, was required by the cacogenic woman and her progeny.

Criminal justice planning

Abstract: Academic and practicing criminal justice planners have generally assumed the utility of a particular model of planning. This model, the general planning process model, proceeds in a strict sequence of problem analysis, goal identification, alternative analysis, program selection, implementation, and evaluation. While this approach has proven useful in other areas such as corporate and military planning many of the fundamental assumptions underlying its use are not satisfied in the criminal justice field. Criminal justice planners have generally attempted to modify the field to match the assumptions of their planning approach. hut they have had little success in doing so. An alternative model exists, however, which suggests that planning ought to he restricted, concurrent, and fragmented. This approach not only adapts planning to the present characteristics of the criminal, justice field hut also helps deal with some of the fields most troublesome characteristics.

Crime as an occupation

Abstract: Students of crime have traditionally stressed the uniqueness of the criminal world and have developed special concepts in their attempt to explain the functioning of this “special” domain. In contrast, others in the field have asserted that the concepts used to investigate the coventional world can also be employed to provide insight into its criminal counterpart. This sentiment has been particularly evident among those who have utilized the concept of “occupation” to analyze criminal behavior. Building on the “crime as work” perspective, this research illustrates that, similar to conventional occupations, criminal work is stratified by prestige and stereotyped by sex. Further, the data suggest that Davis and Moore's (1945) functional theory may be a useful explanation not only of the stratification of conventional work but of criminal occupations as well.

Seriousness of offenses

Abstract: This experimental study, which was partly a replication of two previous studies in Canada and the United States, had a group of Norwegian students judge the seriousness of a set of offenses based on the magnitude estimation technique of psychophysics. Although it appeared that a considerable degree of consensus regarding the rank ordering of offense seriousness extended across the social and cultural differences between the three subject populations, some clear differences did emerge. In general, any change in the judgment of offense seriousness by the Norwegian subjects exceeded the corresponding changes perceived by the Canadian and the U.S. subjects.

Psychological effects of the predictability of prison release

Abstract: Although the determinate sentence is generally discussed as a unified concept, it appears to be comprised of two independent factors which can be considered separately-equity in sentencing and predictability of release. This paper features one component of the determinate sentence, predictability of release, in an attempt to demonstrate the advantages of providing inmates with advance information concerning their release dates. Evidence from psychological research on stress and intrinsic motivation is presented to substantiate claims by critics of the indeterminate sentence that it results in heightened inmate-anxiety and poor program-performance. Ensuring predictability of release is an important objective which is likely to result in benefits for both inmates and the correctional system as a whole.

Controlling corporate deviance

Abstract: The effectiveness of sanctions applied to corporate offenders has not been adequately studied, in part because of the absence of any appropriate research strategy. This absence stems from the tendency. since Sutherland, to conceptualize corporate crime as individual rather than organizational behavior. This article outlines a research procedure based on the organizational nature of corporate crime and uses it to evaluate the impact of prosecutions under Australia's Trade Practices Act. The article concludes that the sanctions applied have considerably reduced the likelihood of corporate recidivism.

Violence and commitment in custodial settings

Abstract: Questionnaires were distributed to the inmates and staff of four custodial settings: (1) a men's prison; (2)a women's prison; (3) a boarding school for troubled and troublesome juveniles; and (4) a drug rehabilitation halfway house (staff not questioned). The hypothesis of the study was that violence would be inversely related to commitment (defined as involvement with the organization and organizational cohesion). Using attitudinal measures of commitment and a self-report. Guttman scale of violence, the results of the study indicated the following: (1) violence was significantly inversely related to both organizational involvement and cohesion among some custodial inmates and (2) violence was slightly positively correlated with involvement and cohesion among some custodial staff. The relationship persisted among inmates even with the introduction of age and education as control variables. The use of these controls only slightly modified the relationship among custodial staff:

Early release committee for prisoners versus computer

Abstract: In this research we compared the results of two decision-making processes. The first process relates to the Early Release Committee for prisoners, which has a discretionary power to release prisoners who have served twothirds of their sentence. The second process involves the use of the same variables as those which were available to the release committee in the course of its decision-making process, to obtain a computer decision. It was found that the committee was wrong in 75.4% of its decisions, while the computer was wrong in only 30.3%. Some implications of this are discussed.