Showing papers in "Educational Technology Research and Development in 1995"

Situated cognition and learning environments: roles, structures, and implications for design

Abstract: Situated cognition has emerged as a powerful perspective in providing meaningful learning and promoting the transfer of knowledge to real-life situations. While considerable interest has been generated in situated learning environments, few guidelines exist related to their design. The purpose of this paper is to examine the theoretical underpinnings of situated cognition and to derive implications for the design of situated learning environments. The conceptual framework centers on four basic issues: the role of context, the role of content, the role of facilitation, and the role of assessment.

A generative theory of textbook design : using annotated illustrations to foster meaningful learning of science text

Abstract: In three experiments, college students read a text explaining how lightning works and then took problem-solving transfer tests. Some students (integrated group) also viewed illustrations depicting the major stages in the formation of lightning that (a) were placed adjacent to corresponding text paragraphs and (b) contained annotations repeating the verbal cause-and-effect information from the text. Other students (separated group) viewed the same illustrations (a) on a separate page and (b) without annotations, after they had finished reading the text. The integrated group generated approximately 50% more creative solutions on transfer problems than the separated group, and this pattern was stronger for students who lacked experience in meteorology than for high-experience students. The positive effects of integrated illustrations depended on incorporating annotations (i.e., captions and labels) into the illustrations rather than placing illustrations close to corresponding paragraphs. Results were interpreted in light of a generative theory of multimedia learning which posits that meaningful learning requires constructing connections between visual and verbal representations of a system.

Competencies for distance education professionals

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to identify the roles and competencies of distance education professionals within the United States and Canada. A population of 103 distance education experts was identified, and their perceptions regarding this information were sought in a modified two-round Delphi process. The results of the study include a competency model for distance education. It illustrates the final top ten competencies and eleven roles which were identified by the study. In addition, a supplemental table outlining outputs and competencies by individual role was developed. The top ten competencies portray the dual importance of both communication and technical skills in distance education. These ten competencies are: (1) Interpersonal Communication, (2) Planning Skills, (3) Collaboration/Teamwork Skills, (4) English Proficiency, (5) Writing Skills, (6) Organizational Skills, (7) Feedback Skills, (8) Knowledge of Distance Education Field, (9) Basic Technology Knowledge, and (10) Technology Access Knowledge. The resulting competency model will be useful in serving as a research foundation for development training and certification programs for distance education professionals.

A historical review of visualization in human cognition

Abstract: This paper presents a historical overview of visualization as a cognitive strategy in human creativity, discovery, and problem-solving. Visualization strategies, such as mental imagery, pervade historical accounts of scientific discovery and invention. A selected number of historical examples are presented and discussed on topics such as physics, aviation, and the science of chaos. Everyday examples are also discussed to show the value of visualization in cognition for all people. Several counter examples are also discussed showing that visualization can also lead to erroneous conclusions. Many educational implications are discussed, such as reconsidering the dominant role and value schools place on verbal, abstract thinking. These issues are also considered in light of emerging computer-based technologies, such as virtual reality.

A model for understanding formative evaluation in instructional design

Abstract: The model elaborated here provides a common language for analyzing and understanding the literature on formative evaluation by identifying four components: who participates, what roles can be taken, what techniques can be used, and in what situations these can occur. Premised on the design process, intentional decisions about these components must be made after establishing goals of the instruction and considering the constraints. The model was validated by analyzing 11 instructional design texts. The analysis revealed many assumptions embedded in the language that is used to talk about formative evaluation and highlighted what is emphasized and what is not addressed about the process. The model provides a decision-making template for designing an effective formative evaluation.

Learner Control in Full and Lean CAI Programs

Abstract: This study investigated the effects of two types of control over instruction (learner and program) and two modes of instructional programs (lean and full) on the achievement, option use, and time-in-program of 274 high-ability and low-ability students from grades 9 and 10. The basic instructional program in geometry was delivered by computer. Subjects under learner control scored significantly higher on the program posttest than those under program control, spent significantly more time in the program, and liked it better. Learner-control subjects appeared to “trust” their given version of the program, viewing many more optional screens in the full version than those in the lean one. High-ability learners adapted their study behavior to the lean version under learner control by choosing significantly more optional screens than their low-ability counterparts.

An Examination of Computing Styles among Teachers in Elementary Schools

Abstract: In this article I examine the ways in which teachers organize their workplace behaviors as they respond to computers in their schools. Particular attention is given to the strategies that develop among teachers enabling them to address their own occupational concerns and organizational expectations simultaneously. Data were collected through extensive observation and formal interviewing in nine elementary schools. Computers had been in each of the schools for at least five years at the time of the study. Findings reveal that teachers shape the meaning of computer technology in their schools through styles of computing including avoidance, integration, and technical specialization. This influence has critical implications for the ongoing process of computer implementation in elementary schools.

Matching learner preference to amount of instruction: An alternative form of learner control

Abstract: This study was conducted with 75 United States and Far East employees of a major corporation to investigate the effects of assigning learners to either the amount of instruction they preferred or to the contrasting amount. Subjects completed a 10-item Likert-type prequestionnaire to indicate whether they preferred a basic instructional program or a more comprehensive one, then were randomly assigned either to the type of program they preferred or to the opposite type. Subjects who received the amount of instruction that matched their preference scored significantly higher on the posttest, spent significantly less time in the program, and had significantly more positive attitudes on four of the six attitude items. Further research is recommended to determine the generalizability of the present findings to other subject populations.

Effects of cooperative learning on performance, attitude, and group behaviors in a technical team environment

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of cooperative learning strategies on performance, attitude toward working in teams, and group interaction behaviors in a technical training context. Participants were 274 engineering employees enrolled in a required training class that focused on communicating technical procedures in plant operations. Participants were divided into small groups and cooperative teams. Instruction was the same for all participants. Only the practice portion of the lesson reflected cooperative strategies versus no process direction. Results indicated that the practice conducted in a cooperative manner had a significant effect on performance and group behaviors. Participants in the cooperative teams performed better on the posttest, enjoyed working in teams, perceived more accomplishment, and displayed higher levels of social and cognitive interaction than participants who worked in unstructured small groups. Implications for integrating cooperative strategies into technical team training are provided.

Dynamic Visual Support for Story Comprehension and Mental Model Building by Young, At-Risk Children.

Abstract: Multimedia technology allows precise coordination of linguistic and visual information and may provide teachers with tools for enhancing literacy foundations in children–especially those who might otherwise be at-risk for school failure. This research explores the hypothesis that a multimedia environment with dynamic visual support facilitates language comprehension when children listen to short stories. Kindergarten children heard stories in three conditions: Helpful video, in which dynamic, silent video accompanied the beginning of stories; No video, in which children only heard the stories; and Minimal video, in which static images of characters and places accompanied the beginning of stories. In all conditions, the ending of the story was presented without visual support. Overall, the pattern of results suggests that dynamic visual support can provide a framework for understanding and remembering linguistic information.

Instructional Analogies and the Learning of Concepts.

Abstract: This paper describes two studies which were designed to examine the effect of instructional analogy training on the ability to identify the application of 10 advanced physiological concepts. In the first study, 161 college students received instruction either with or without analogies. Levels of student performances were compared across three conditions: (a) concept lessons only (including definitions and examples for each concept), (b) similar concept lessons but with an analogy included for each concept, and (c) analogy concept lessons with additional prompts guiding analogy use. In the second study, immediate and delayed performance of 94 college studetns was compared between groups receiving concept lessons with and without analogies. Results showed significantly higher scores, both immediately and after the delayed period, for those students who had received the analogies. Results are discussed in terms of the prescriptive use of analogies within instructional materials and future research possibilities.

Computer-assisted foreign language learning: Effects of text, context, and gender on listening comprehension and motivation

Abstract: A computer-based foreign language lesson was developed to study the effects of text, context, and gender on listening comprehension and motivation. A total of 109 fifth grade students responded to spoken commands, with text and a story absent or present. Presenting spoken language with text appeared to assist the development of listening skills. When text was present, students made fewer errors on the subsequent comprehension test and gave higher relevance and confidence motivation ratings than when text was absent. Girls demonstrated higher achievement than did boys and rated the lesson higher, indicating that girls tend to like different kinds of software than do boys. An interaction between context and gender regarding achievement was significant: Girls, but not boys, made fewer errors after a story-embedded lesson.

Preschool children's comprehension of a Sesame Street video tape: The effects of repeated viewing and previewing instructions

Abstract: Twenty male and 20 female 4-year-olds viewed a 19-minute Sesame Street video tape once a week for three weeks to determine whether comprehension of the plot of the video tape would improve if the children were given ample time to process the tape, and if they participated in one of two previewing instruction conditions. Findings indicated that repeated viewing of the tape was the most important factor in children's ability to comprehend the plot. Previewing instructions and gender did not influence plot comprehension. It is suggested that repeated viewing allowed the children to process the formal features of the tape and use them to construct a framework within which to interpret the plot of the show. Additional findings are discussed in terms of children's script representation and how such representation is acquired.

The Effects of Cued Interaction and Ability Grouping during Cooperative Computer-Based Science Instruction.

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of verbal interaction cues and ability grouping within a cooperative learning computer-based program. We blocked 231 eighth graders in a required science class by ability and randomly assigned them to homogeneous lower-ability, homogeneous higher-ability, or heterogeneous mixed-ability dyads. Each dyad was randomly assigned to a computer program that either did or did not contain verbal interaction cues designed to facilitate summarizing and explaining between partners. Results indicated that students using the cued version of the program performed significantly better on the posttest than students using the noncued version. Direct observation of student interaction indicated that students in cued dyads exhibited significantly more summarizing and helping behaviors than noncued students. Furthermore, higher-ability dyads exhibited significantly less off-task behavior than the other dyads. Implications for designing computer-based instruction for cooperative settings are provided.

Humor me: A call for research

Abstract: A review of the literature indicates that the introduction of humor as an instructional strategy in computer-based instruction (CBI) has not been studied as much as the effects of humor use in the classroom and other media. In this article humor theories are summarized, examples of humor research are provided, and perspectives on the relationships between humor, affect, motivation, information processing, and learner characteristics are discussed. Also, general guidelines for incorporating humor in CBI are suggested, and a research agenda is proposed that would support more definitive prescriptions for humor applications that reflect the affordances of modern instructional technology.

Managing Courseware Production: An Instructional Design Model with a Software Engineering Approach

Abstract: In applied courseware production settings, two equally important processes tend to vie for attention: Instructional Design (ID) and Management. Together, these two processes comprise instructional systems development (ISD). To ensure the instructional appropriateness of courseware, an ID model is proposed to remind producers of the important instructional factors and process. This model contains three stages. The analysis stage draws out and documents background information. The development stage constructs content, measurement, strategies, media, and settings. This stage can be further divided into “prototype design” and “formal production.” The last stage is the evaluation stage which includes pilot testing and summative evaluation.

Using a hypertext environment for teaching process writing: An evaluation study of three student groups

Abstract: The present research consisted of a comprehensive evaluation of a hypertext model for teaching process writing at the junior high and high school level. Interests were to determine how two teachers and three different age groups of students used and reacted to the model, specifically, its embedded design features of model stories, note cards, idea buttons, mini-lessons, branching buttons, and cut-and-paste-tools. Results showed applications of the embedded features to vary based on teacher attitudes, feature attributes (e.g., ease of use and appeal), and student characteristics. Older students made more usage of many of the features, but were less positive about the hypertext model given their greater involvement with completing writing assignments rather than with exploring new forms of writing. The implications of the results are discussed regarding the instructional design and classroom implementation of new technologies for teaching process writing strategies.

Using electronic meeting system support in the design of the graduate core curriculum

Abstract: This article focuses on the use of an electronic meeting system (EMS) to facilitate the selection and refinement of a set of common graduate core courses for all master's degrees within the school of education in an upper-division university. The EMS was used at selected intervals within a seven months' process and provided an opportunity for broad-based group involvement in selection of the core competencies to be included. The seven-member task force generated ideas, discussed highly charged issues, prioritized competencies, and came to consensus through a combination of traditional and electronic meeting environments. The process followed, as well as the advantages, disadvantages, and insights gained, are reported here.

Creating educational software and transforming the curriculum: Projects that are changing the face of the Russian school

Abstract: Few would doubt that education is the only way to deal with those global problems that are being felt today in virtually all countries of the world. It is sad that everywhere both the educational system and the researchers who work in it are experiencing difficult times. This is especially true for Russian researchers and teachers. The work I have discussed above is being carried out by true professionals and enthusiasts for their cause. The work continues. The authors of these programs believe that the time has arrived for serious international projects on the design of methodological support and typical modules for a system of global education in the context of the developing global information society.

Social and educational reform in New Zealand: The promise and threat of information technology

Abstract: Implementing a curriculum is a function of what is promoted in a curriculum document, developed as school policy by the principal and staff, and put into practice by a teacher. All of these require engaging in extensive professional activity and concultation with the community. Consequently planning for the extended use of information technology by focusing on what may be promised by new curriculum documents, while ignoring political priorities and pressures, professional development issues, and community beliefs about education, exposes education to considerable risk.