Showing papers in "Emerging microbes & infections in 2012"
TL;DR: This review summarizes recent work on aspects of virus emergence and the current understanding of the molecular and immunological basis whereby viruses may cross between species and become established in new ecological niches.
Abstract: Emerging virus diseases are a major threat to human and veterinary public health. With new examples occurring approximately one each year, the majority are viruses originating from an animal host. ...
168 citations
TL;DR: This review covers the available literature on the emerging importance of T cell responses in SARS-CoV infection, particularly on the mapping of cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) epitopes, longevity, polyfunctionality and human leukocyte antigen (HLA) association as well as their potential implications on treatment and vaccine development.
Abstract: The severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic started in late 2002 and swiftly spread across 5 continents with a mortality rate of around 10%. Although the epidemic was eventually controlle...
136 citations
TL;DR: This article reviews the latest developments in the molecular biology of HEV with an emphasis on the genomic organization, the expression and function of genes, and the structure and replication ofHEV.
Abstract: Hepatitis E virus (HEV), a single-stranded, positive-sense RNA virus, is responsible for acute hepatitis E epidemics in many developing countries, and the virus is also endemic in some industrialized countries. Hepatitis E is a recognized zoonotic disease, and several animal species, including pigs, are potential reservoirs for HEV. The genome of HEV contains three open reading frames (ORFs). ORF1 encodes the nonstructural proteins, ORF2 encodes the capsid protein, and ORF3 encodes a small multifunctional protein. The ORF2 and ORF3 proteins are translated from a single, bicistronic mRNA. The coding sequences for these two ORFs overlap each other, but neither overlaps with ORF1. Whereas the mechanisms underlying HEV replication are poorly understood, the construction of infectious viral clones, the identification of cell lines that support HEV replication, and the development of small animal models have allowed for more detailed study of the virus. As result of these advances, recently, our understanding of viral entry, genomic replication and viral egress has improved. Furthermore, the determination of the T=1 and T=3 structure of HEV virus-like particles has furthered our understanding of the replication of HEV. This article reviews the latest developments in the molecular biology of HEV with an emphasis on the genomic organization, the expression and function of genes, and the structure and replication of HEV.
128 citations
TL;DR: The D125G(GAT→GGT) mutation, which evolved during the adaptation of a human virus within a mouse host, activates a novel donor splice site in the non-structural gene, hence producing a novel influenza A viral protein, NS3, which was shown to provide replicative gain-of-function.
Abstract: Little is known about the processes that enable influenza A viruses to jump into new host species. Here we show that the non-structural protein1 nucleotide substitution, A374G, encoding the D125G(GAT→GGT) mutation, which evolved during the adaptation of a human virus within a mouse host, activates a novel donor splice site in the non-structural gene, hence producing a novel influenza A viral protein, NS3. Using synonymous 125G mutations that do not activate the novel donor splice site, NS3 was shown to provide replicative gain-of-function. The protein sequence of NS3 is similar to NS1 protein but with an internal deletion of a motif comprised of three antiparallel β-strands spanning codons 126 to 168 in NS1. The NS1-125G(GGT) codon was also found in 33 natural influenza A viruses that were strongly associated with switching from avian to mammalian hosts, including human, swine and canine populations. In addition to the experimental human to mouse switch, the NS1-125G(GGT) codon was selected on avian to human transmission of the 1997 H5N1 and 1999 H9N2 lineages, as well as the avian to swine jump of 1979 H1N1 Eurasian swine influenza viruses, linking the NS1 125G(GGT) codon with host adaptation and switching among multiple species.
126 citations
TL;DR: The findings indicate the worrisome involvement of an epidemic plasmid in the dissemination of NDM-1 in China and the first description of IncX3 plasmids carrying blaNDM-1.
Abstract: The New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM-1) is one of the most important resistance traits in Enterobacteriaceae. We characterized nine blaNDM-1 producing Enterobacteriaceae recovered from seven pati...
115 citations
TL;DR: Comparison of the seven conserved replicase domains for species demarcation shows that HCoV-EMC is a novel CoV species, and more intensive surveillance studies in bats and other animals may reveal the natural host of HCoVs.
Abstract: The recent outbreak of severe respiratory infections associated with a novel group C betacoronavirus (HCoV-EMC) from Saudi Arabia has drawn global attention to another highly probable “SARS-like” a...
102 citations
TL;DR: The high incidence of scarlet fever in children less than 10 years old suggests that the lack of protective immunity is an important host factor, and next-generation gene sequencing technology permits prompt detection of genomic and transcriptomic profiles associated with invasive phenotypes.
Abstract: Explosive outbreaks of infectious diseases occasionally occur without immediately obvious epidemiological or microbiological explanations. Plague, cholera and Streptococcus pyogenes infection are some of the epidemic-prone bacterial infections. Besides epidemiological and conventional microbiological methods, the next-generation gene sequencing technology permits prompt detection of genomic and transcriptomic profiles associated with invasive phenotypes. Horizontal gene transfer due to mobile genetic elements carrying virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance, or mutations associated with the two component CovRS operon are important bacterial factors conferring survival advantage or invasiveness. The high incidence of scarlet fever in children less than 10 years old suggests that the lack of protective immunity is an important host factor. A high population density, overcrowded living environment and a low yearly rainfall are environmental factors contributing to outbreak development. Inappropriate antibiotic use is not only ineffective for treatment, but may actually drive an epidemic caused by drug-resistant strains and worsen patient outcomes by increasing the bacterial density at the site of infection and inducing toxin production. Surveillance of severe S. pyogenes infection is important because it can complicate concurrent chickenpox and influenza. Concomitant outbreaks of these two latter infections with a highly virulent and drug-resistant S. pyogenes strain can be disastrous.
85 citations
TL;DR: The first case of severe pneumonia due to co-infection with the emerging avian influenza A (H5N1) virus subclade 2.3.2.1 and Mycoplasma pneumoniae is reported.
Abstract: We report the first case of severe pneumonia due to co-infection with the emerging avian influenza A (H5N1) virus subclade 2.3.2.1 and Mycoplasma pneumoniae. The patient was a returning traveller who had visited a poultry market in South China. We then review the epidemiology, virology, interspecies barrier limiting poultry-to-human transmission, clinical manifestation, laboratory diagnosis, treatment and control measures of H5N1 clades that can be transmitted to humans. The recent controversy regarding the experiments involving aerosol transmission of recombinant H5N1 virus between ferrets is discussed. We also review the relative contribution of the poor response to antiviral treatment and the virus-induced hyperinflammatory damage to the pathogenesis and the high mortality of this infection. The factors related to the host, virus or medical intervention leading to the difference in disease mortality of different countries remain unknown. Because most developing countries have difficulty in instituting effective biosecurity measures, poultry vaccination becomes an important control measure. The rapid evolution of the virus would adversely affect the efficacy of poultry vaccination unless a correctly matched vaccine was chosen, manufactured and administered in a timely manner. Vigilant surveillance must continue to allow better preparedness for another poultry or human pandemic due to new viral mutants.
82 citations
TL;DR: Current progress in developing subunit, DNA and live carrier platforms of delivery by bacterial and viral vectors, as well as approaches for controlled attenuation of virulent strains of Y. pestis are analyzed.
Abstract: Despite many decades of intensive studies of Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague, there is no safe and efficient vaccine against this devastating disease. A recently developed F1/V subunit vaccine candidate, which relies mainly on humoral immunity, showed promising results in animal studies; however, its efficacy in humans still has to be carefully evaluated. In addition, those developing next-generation plague vaccines need to pay particular attention to the importance of eliciting cell-mediated immunity. In this review, we analyzed the current progress in developing subunit, DNA and live carrier platforms of delivery by bacterial and viral vectors, as well as approaches for controlled attenuation of virulent strains of Y. pestis.
51 citations
TL;DR: Prospective influenza A virus surveillance among pigs at Ohio fairs resulted in the detection of H3N2pM (H3N 2 influenza A viruses containing the matrix (M) gene from the influenza A (H1N1) pdm09 virus), which were temporally and spatially linked to several human H3n2v cases.
Abstract: Evidence accumulating in 2011–2012 indicates that there is significant intra- and inter-species transmission of influenza A viruses at agricultural fairs, which has renewed interest in this unique ...
49 citations
TL;DR: To improve treatment of MDR-TB, it is proposed to classify M DR-TB into PZA-susceptible MDR -TB (ZS-MDR- TB) and Pza-resistant MDR (ZR-Mdr-TB) and explore the feasibility of shortening the treatment duration with a regimen comprising PZA plus at least two bactericidal agents especially new agents like TMC207 or PA-824 or delamanid.
Abstract: Indispensable for shortening treatment of drug-susceptible tuberculosis (TB), pyrazinamide (PZA, Z) is also essential in the treatment of multidrug-resistant (MDR)-TB. While resistance to PZA in MDR-TB is associated with poor treatment outcome, bacillary susceptibility to PZA along with the use of fluoroquinolone (FQ) and second-line injectable drugs (SLIDs) may predict improved treatment success in MDR-TB. Despite a high prevalence of PZA resistance among MDR-TB patients (10%-85%), PZA susceptibility testing is seldom performed because of technical challenges. To improve treatment of MDR-TB, we propose to: (i) classify MDR-TB into PZA-susceptible MDR-TB (Z(S)-MDR-TB) and PZA-resistant MDR-TB (Z(R)-MDR-TB); (ii) use molecular tests such as DNA sequencing (pncA, gyrA, rrs, etc.) to rapidly identify Z(S)-MDR-TB versus Z(R)-MDR-TB and susceptibility profile for FQ and SLID; (iii) refrain from using PZA in Z(R)-MDR-TB; and (iv) explore the feasibility of shortening the treatment duration of Z(S)-MDR-TB with a regimen comprising PZA plus at least two bactericidal agents especially new agents like TMC207 or PA-824 or delamanid which the bacilli are susceptible to, with one or two other agents. These measures may potentially shorten therapy, save costs, and reduce side effects of MDR-TB treatment.
TL;DR: This review highlights some key advances in the development of antiviral vaccines targeting the RBDs of spike proteins of emerging and re-emerging viruses, using SARS-CoV, influenza virus, Hendra virus (HeV) and Nipah virus (NiV) as examples.
Abstract: A number of emerging and re-emerging viruses have caused epidemics or pandemics of infectious diseases leading to major devastations throughout human history. Therefore, developing effective and safe vaccines against these viruses is clearly important for the protection of at-risk populations. Our previous studies have shown that the receptor-binding domain (RBD) in the spike protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV) is a key target for the development of SARS vaccines. In this review, we highlight some key advances in the development of antiviral vaccines targeting the RBDs of spike proteins of emerging and re-emerging viruses, using SARS-CoV, influenza virus, Hendra virus (HeV) and Nipah virus (NiV) as examples.
TL;DR: ITS and partial EF1α gene sequencing are more reliable than partial β-actin and 28S rRNA gene sequencing for identification of the Lichtheimia species.
Abstract: Recently, we and others reported the discovery of Lichtheimia ramosa (syn. Lichtheimia hongkongensis). We also hypothesized that a proportion of ‘Absidia corymbifera (Lichtheimia corymbifera)' reported in the literature could be L. ramosa. In this study, we characterized 13 strains that had been reported as ‘A. corymbifera (L. corymbifera)' in the literature over an 11-year period. Microscopic examination of agar block smear preparations of all 13 strains showed abundant circinate side branches and pleomorphic giant cells with finger-like projections of L. ramosa. ITS1–5.8S–ITS2 rRNA gene cluster (internal transcribed spacer (ITS)) and partial elongation factor-1alpha (EF1α) gene sequencing showed that all 13 strains were clustered with L. ramosa; partial β-actin gene sequencing showed that most of the 13 strains were clustered with L. ramosa; and partial 28S rRNA gene sequencing showed that all 13 strains were clustered with L. ramosa, but one strain of L. corymbifera (HKU25) was also clustered with other strains of L. ramosa. A significant number of reported A. corymbifera (L. corymbifera) infections are L. ramosa infections which are of global distribution. In clinical microbiology laboratories, L. ramosa should be suspected if an Absidia-like mold that possesses abundant circinate side branches on the sporangiophores and pleomorphic giant cells with finger-like projections is observed. ITS and partial EF1α gene sequencing are more reliable than partial β-actin and 28S rRNA gene sequencing for identification of the Lichtheimia species.
TL;DR: Next generation sequencing (NGS) has supplanted traditional methods for microbiome analyses and advantages include higher resolution and lower costs, as well as new tools to improve output and deal with larger amounts of data generated.
Abstract: Next generation sequencing (NGS) has supplanted traditional methods for microbiome analyses Advantages include higher resolution and lower costs Analyses have evolved from basic 16S rRNA surveys
TL;DR: The making of monoclonal antibodies that react with cross-reacting determinants on flu viruses provide a very promising approach to providing passive immunity that will be effective against a variety of different strains of the flu virus.
Abstract: The use of antibodies to provide passive immunity to infections has a long history. Although the coming of antibiotics greatly reduced its use for bacterial infections, it is still widely used for a variety of purposes which are reviewed here. The use of animal antisera gave way to the use of human convalescent serum as a source of antibodies and more recently human and monoclonal antibodies have become widely used, not just providing passive immunity but as therapeutic agents. The current uses of antibody therapy are discussed as are the problems of antibody-mediated immunopathology and how this can be avoided. More recent developments include the making of monoclonal antibodies that react with cross-reacting determinants on flu viruses. Such antibodies are not usually made following infection and they provide a very promising approach to providing passive immunity that will be effective against a variety of different strains of the flu virus. It is also pointed out that passive immunotherapy can act as a surrogate vaccine providing that the subject gets infected while protected by the passive antibodies. Finally, there is a section on the possible use of oral antibodies given as food to prevent diseases such as infantile gastroenteritis.
TL;DR: Tissues from the index case, as well as tissues and oral mucosal swabs from six SHIV-infected contacts, were analyzed using molecular methods and found to contain nucleic acid sequences characteristic of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC), suggesting that existing protocols fail to reliably detect MTBC infection in laboratory primates used as experimental models.
Abstract: Here we present a case series from a primate research facility. The index case, a 4-year-old pig-tailed macaque (Macaca nemestrina) experimentally infected with chimeric simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIVSF162 P4), developed weight loss and was euthanized. Based on necropsy results the animal was diagnosed with opportunistic atypical mycobacteriosis associated with simian AIDS (SAIDS). Subsequently, tissues from the index animal, as well as tissues and oral mucosal swabs from six SHIV-infected contacts, were analyzed using molecular methods and found to contain nucleic acid sequences characteristic of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC). These data suggest that existing protocols fail to reliably detect MTBC infection in laboratory primates used as experimental models.
TL;DR: For people with a low infection risk, a universal booster vaccination is not currently recommended, but it should be considered for high-risk groups, and a wait-and-see policy to determine the necessity for booster vaccines is suggested.
Abstract: Hepatitis B infection, especially by perinatal transmission, is endemic in Asian countries. After the first successful universal hepatitis B virus (HBV) vaccination programme for newborns in Taiwan, it became feasible to prevent HBV transmission and the resultant hepatocellular carcinoma in endemic countries. However, a small subset of vaccinated people have a suboptimal immunological response to vaccination, and the immunity of some young adults who were vaccinated as infants seems to have waned over time. Despite this loss, recent studies suggest that anamnestic anti-HBs antibody responses rapidly resume and eliminate acute HBV infection acquired through sexual contact or blood transfusion, even though the anti-HBs antibody titre has decreased below a protective level. These observations indicate prolonged protection by the HBV vaccine. Therefore, for people with a low infection risk, a universal booster vaccination is not currently recommended, but it should be considered for high-risk groups. However, we still advocate close monitoring of acute hepatitis B among patients who lack a protective level of anti-HBs antibody and suggest a wait-and-see policy to determine the necessity for booster vaccines.
TL;DR: The evolution of molecular technologies, including real-time measurements, isothermal amplification, the inclusion of internal quality assurance protocols, device miniaturization and the automation of specimen processing are discussed, not only in the context of the virus, but also in thecontext of tests focused on human genomics and transcriptomics.
Abstract: Substantive and significant advances have been made in the last two decades in the characterization of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections using molecular techniques. These advances include the use of real-time measurements, isothermal amplification, the inclusion of internal quality assurance protocols, device miniaturization and the automation of specimen processing. The result has been a significant increase in the availability of results to a high level of accuracy and quality. Molecular assays are currently widely used for diagnostics, antiretroviral monitoring and drug resistance characterization in developed countries. Simple and cost-effective point-of-care versions are also being vigorously developed with the eventual goal of providing timely healthcare services to patients residing in remote areas and those in resource-constrained countries. In this review, we discuss the evolution of these molecular technologies, not only in the context of the virus, but also in the context of tests focused on human genomics and transcriptomics.
TL;DR: There is an urgent need for new strategies to combat the spread of drug-resistant bacteria worldwide and bacterial protein phosphorylation as a promising target for novel antibacterials is considered.
Abstract: There is an urgent need for new strategies to combat the spread of drug-resistant bacteria worldwide. This commentary concerns, namely bacterial protein phosphorylation as a promising target for novel antibacterials.
TL;DR: It is now privately acknowledged that there may be little if any perceptible impact of the national Bacille Calmette–Guerin (BCG) vaccination program on disease prevalence, despite the extensive coverage of the newborn infant population and likely benefit in the early years of life.
Abstract: It is now privately acknowledged that there may be little if any perceptible impact of the national Bacille Calmette–Guerin (BCG) vaccination program on disease prevalence, despite the extensive co...
TL;DR: It is found that the oac gene in serotype 1b strains was very different from that in serotypes 3a, 3b and 4b strains and is herein after referred to as oac1b which shares with oac 88%–89% identity at the DNA level and 85% Identity at the protein level.
Abstract: Shigella flexneri is a leading cause of bacterial dysentery in developing countries. Among the 15 known serotypes, four (1b, 3a, 3b and 4b) contain a group 6 epitope due to an acetyl group connected to the O-2 position of rhamnose III on the tetrasaccharide structure of the lipopolysaccharide. O-acetyltransferase encoded by a bacteriophage, Sf6, mediates the acetylation reaction. We found that the oac gene in serotype 1b strains was very different from that in serotypes 3a, 3b and 4b strains and is herein after referred to as oac1b which shares with oac 88%–89% identity at the DNA level and 85% identity at the protein level. Considering that S. flexneri strains of serotypes 1–5 share a recent common ancestry, the divergent oac1b is more likely to have been obtained from outside S. flexneri than to have undergone rapid divergence from the oac gene in the other serotypes (3a, 3b and 4b) within S. flexneri. The cloned oac1b gene was found to perform the same acetylation function as oac. Analysis of the genomic regions flanking oac1b showed that it was present in a prophage on the chromosome and the organizational structure is different from that of phage Sf6. Additionally, phage conversion assay showed that serotype 1b cannot be generated by infecting serotype 1a strains with Sf6. We conclude that oac1b was carried by a non-Sf6 phage and is uniquely present in serotype 1b.
TL;DR: Emphasizing the importance of coordination among researchers, funders and advocacy groups, the fact that biomedical research, and particularly basic research, is a vital part of a complementary approach to eliminating TB across the globe is illustrated.
Abstract: Tuberculosis (TB) has been a persistent public health concern for hundreds of years. Despite advances in medicine and science, eliminating this disease has been beyond our reach. Several organizations, including the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), part of the National Institutes of Health (NIH), have expressed their commitment to advancing biomedical research in TB in order to increase our understanding of the causative pathogen and the disease. This basic knowledge is a critical first step in the development and implementation of new therapeutics, vaccines and diagnostics. Collaboration between researchers is a key component to accomplishing this goal; product development can no longer be limited to separate programs. Rather, the interconnectedness and possible combination of interventions must be investigated. This review will discuss ongoing TB research including NIAID's role, as well as future research that is needed to improve TB control. Emphasizing the importance of coordination among researchers, funders and advocacy groups, we aim to illustrate the fact that biomedical research, and particularly basic research, is a vital part of a complementary approach to eliminating TB across the globe.
TL;DR: Patrick Manson, a clinician-scientist serving in China, discovered that many tropical infectious diseases require a vector peculiar to warm climate for person to person transmission and his vector hypothesis leads to vector control which is now the cornerstone for the World Health Organization’s programme for the elimination/control of lymphatic filariasis, dracunculiasis and malaria.
Abstract: Patrick Manson, a clinician-scientist serving in China (1866–1889), discovered that many tropical infectious diseases require a vector peculiar to warm climate for person to person transmission. He...
TL;DR: The findings will substantially benefit other researchers to establish virus mutation monitoring systems and to develop strategies for preventing H5N1 pandemic in the future and the NSABB's decision to recommend full publication of the papers is welcomed.
Abstract: Dear Editor,Last year, two research teams led by Dr Yoshihiro Kawaoka (University of Wisconsin at Madison) and Dr Ron Fouchier (Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands) generated avian i...
TL;DR: This new open access journal ‘Emerging Microbes and Infections', which will link infections and microbes, will serve as a bridge between researchers, clinicians and epidemiologists in the developing and the developed world.
Abstract: The outbreak and immediate global spread of the SARS-CoV infection in 2002–2004, not only shook the public health and medical fields, but also became a top concern for governments of all countries. This outbreak clearly indicated that emerging microbes and infections are one of the most important issues for global health and economy. Global collaboration on emerging microbes is inevitable, and of urgent need.
During the peak of the SARS-CoV outbreak, a German group of virologists headed by one of us (Hans-Dieter Klenk) visited Beijing for a meeting with Chinese scientists at the ‘empty' Beijing Hotel and Chang An Road to discuss on immediate collaboration between scientists of both countries. Research regarding virology, immunology, epidemiology clinical medicine, laboratory diagnosis and bioinformatics on this newly discovered horrifying virus and infection were discussed. With no traffic, no crowd, no interference from outside, it was quiet but hot inside the meeting room, as scientists eagerly discussed the progress already made and possible fields for future collaboration. This meeting was very productive. It led to several important and impressive articles being published and some new technologies developed for rapid diagnosis and control of SARS-CoV. Furthermore, it rejuvenated and strengthened worldwide collaboration on microbes and infections that had already existed for a long time before the SARS-CoV episode.
Looking back on the past decade, a large number of articles has been published on microbes and infections, and outstanding journals have been established as well. Notably, clinicians and epidemiologists provided important information on emerging infections, despite not being able to identify the microbes themselves. Microbiologists have then been able to identify the agents, and by employing bioinformatics, structural and functional genomic analysis, measures to diagnose, treat and prevent newly discovered diseases were developed. Publications of articles markedly helped to distribute new information worldwide, for the benefit of mankind.
Based on the three aforementioned issues, namely, information, collaboration and publication, we consider it worthwhile to launch this new open access journal ‘Emerging Microbes and Infections', which will link infections and microbes. In addition, with scientists from different fields and countries on the editorial board, this journal will serve as a bridge between researchers, clinicians and epidemiologists in the developing and the developed world. In order to update readers of Emerging Microbes and Infections, there will not only be reviews and articles, but also a section on news and views. We encourage authors to submit new findings or new trends in microbes and infections to this journal, for timely and worldwide distribution. For authors with interesting news or findings from the developing world, we will provide editing help and reduce or waive publication payment.
We hope close friendship will be established between our readers, authors, reviewers and the editors to make this journal successful, and we thank all of you in advance for supporting Emerging Microbes and Infections.
TL;DR: Of additional concern is a heart transplant patient developed an infection with A. fumigatus after receiving an NECC-manufactured cardioplegia solution used to paralyze the heart during open-heart surgery.
Abstract: Emerging Microbes & Infections (2012) 1, e41; doi:10.1038/emi.2012.46 An ongoing outbreak of fungal meningitis in the United States has been traced to injections of contaminated corticosteroids pro...
TL;DR: Understanding linkages between innate and adaptive immunity are improving formulations of new, as well as existing, vaccines, making them more effective in reducing transmission to humans.
Abstract: Vaccination continues to have a major impact on the health of humans and animals. Furthermore, vaccination of animals is proving to be effective in reducing transmission to humans. Understanding linkages between innate and adaptive immunity are improving formulations of new, as well as existing, vaccines, making them more effective.
TL;DR: This is the first reported case of P. vivax malaria in a child returning from India diagnosed by standard methodology and detected retrospectively by use of broad-range PCR and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry using a panel of primers designed to detect vector-borne pathogens.
Abstract: Plasmodium vivax is a common cause of imported malaria in the USA, second only to P. falciparum. We present a case of P. vivax malaria in a child returning from India. P. vivax was initially diagnosed by standard methodology and detected retrospectively by use of broad-range PCR and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry using a panel of primers designed to detect vector-borne pathogens. This is the first reported case of P. vivax detection using PCR and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry.
TL;DR: There has not been any new virus families discovered over the past two decades, and indeed those newly discovered viruses of recent years can be accommodated within the existing hierarchical family and genera classification system, for example, enterovirus 71.
Abstract: Over 30 threats that have appeared in the last three decades have had a serious impact, either locally or internationally, on health-care resources. Most have resulted from the crossing of species barriers from animals to humans, especially from wildlife reservoirs and domesticated animals. The majority are RNA viruses owing to the ability of the RNA genome to undergo rapid mutation and thus adapt to fluctuations in host population numbers and availability. Indeed, nearly 80% of all known RNA viruses naturally infect animals other than humans, perhaps the most relevant example being that of the influenza A viruses of aquatic birds that have successfully crossed the species barrier into pigs, poultry and horses.1 Despite the increase in emergence, there has not been any new virus families discovered over the past two decades, and indeed those newly discovered viruses of recent years can be accommodated within the existing hierarchical family and genera classification system, for example, enterovirus 71.2