Showing papers in "Environmental Conservation in 1999"
TL;DR: Logistic regression analyses show that while access to game meat from the CWM project has had a positive influence on perceptions of wildlife benefits and awareness of the project's activities, it has had no significant effect on local perceptions of the Game Reserve and the activities of the state wildlife management authority.
Abstract: In recent years there has been a proliferation of projects aiming to integrate human development needs with conservation objectives, and to establish mutually beneficial relationships for the management of natural resources between rural communities and the state. This paper presents data from a case study of human-wildlife interactions in villages along the northern boundary of the Selous Game Reserve in south-east Tanzania. Since 1989, this area has been the site of a project working to promote community wildlife management (CWM). Questionnaire survey data were used to examine villagers' conservation attitudes towards wildlife, the Game Reserve, and the activities of the CWM project and state wildlife management authority. Despite local support for the conservation of wildlife, many respondents were either unaware or held negative views of the activities of the wildlife management institutions. Logistic regression analyses show that while access to game meat from the CWM project has had a positive influence on perceptions of wildlife benefits and awareness of the project's activities, it has had no significant effect on local perceptions of the Game Reserve and the activities of the state wildlife management authority. The factors underlying the observed pattern of conservation attitudes were identified as the inequitable distribution of benefits from the CWM project, and the limited nature of community participation in wildlife management. The importance of institutional issues for the future progress of participatory approaches to conservation with development is emphasized.
320 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the vegetation occurring in eight gneissgranite rock outcrops at Rio de Janeiro State (Brazilian Atlantic coast) which exists in natural associations on soil islands.
Abstract: Summary Rock outcrop communities usually receive very little attention from scientists and environmentalists. We examined the vegetation occurring in eight gneissgranite rock outcrops at Rio de Janeiro State (Brazilian Atlantic coast) which exists in natural associations on soil islands. A total of 86 vascular plant species, belonging to 30 families, was found on 347 soil islands. Bromeliaceae, Asteraceae and Velloziaceae species were the most frequent plants, many of them endemic to these habitats. Ordination and cluster analyses using species frequency on each site made evident some major distinctions related to local influences, most probably the proximity to the sea. Each outcrop presented high values of the Shannon-Wiener index of species diversity. Species richness was very dependent on the total area, and high beta diversity was observed amongst sites. Similarities with the South American and African rock-outcrop communities were found. Despite their uniqueness as habitats, their possession of several endemic species and the fragility of the ecosystem involved, Brazilian rock outcrops are not protected by specific environmental legislation and we propose urgent actions for their protection.
148 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the characteristics, impacts and economic costs and benefits of blast fishing in Indonesia, at the scale of individual fishing households and of Indonesian society as a whole.
Abstract: Characteristics, impacts and economic costs and benefits of blast fishing have been little investigated and they were therefore studied in Indonesia, at the scale of individual fishing households and of Indonesian society as a whole. Although illegal and highly destructive to coral reefs, blast fishing provides income and fish to a vast number of coastal fishers who claim that they have no alternative to make a living. Crew members in small-, medium- and large-scale blast fishing operations earned net incomes per month of US33 900 per km2 of coral reef where there is a low potential value. The main quantifiable costs are through loss of the coastal protection function, foregone benefits of tourism, and foregone benefits of non-destructive fisheries. The economic costs to society are four times higher than the total net private benefits from blast fishing in areas with high potential value of tourism and coastal protection. This analysis of characteristics, impact and economics of blast fishing should help to raise the political will to ban blast fishing from Indonesian waters. Moreover, it allows for an evaluation of possible management solutions, taking into account their costs and the socio-economic framework that caused coastal fishers to start using explosives.
138 citations
TL;DR: The environmental service provided by the great biodiversity of Amazonian forests is one of several factors leading to the conclusion that much greater efforts are warranted to reduce the destruction of these forests as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: The environmental service provided by the great biodiversity of Amazonian forests is one of several factors leading to the conclusion that much greater efforts are warranted to reduce the destruction of these forests. Risks to biodiversity in Amazonian forests include deforestation, logging, fires, fragmentation, depletion of fauna, invasion by exotic species, and climate change. Financial values assigned to biodiversity depend strongly on the purposes of valuation. Utilitarian benefits include the values of presently-marketed and presently-unexploited forest products, and the monetary value of environmental benefits. Non-monetary values of Amazonian forests are also essential components of decision-making on conservation. Measures of ‘willingness to pay’ and ‘willingness to accept’ can be useful as indicators of potential financial flows, but should not be confused with the true values of the forests to society. Valuation for the purpose of setting penalties for destruction of biodiversity is an important legal question in Brazil and must take into consideration additional factors.Conservation of biodiversity in Brazil includes creation of various types of protected areas. The status of these areas varies greatly, with practice frequently deviating from official requirements. Creating reserves that include human occupants has a variety of pros and cons. Although the effect of humans is not always benign, much larger areas can be brought under protection regimes if human occupants are included. Additional considerations apply to buffer zones around protected areas. The choice and design of reserves depends on the financial costs and biodiversity benefits of different strategies. In Brazil, rapid creation of lightly-protected ‘paper parks’ has been a means of keeping ahead of the advance of barriers to establishment of new conservation units, but emphasis must eventually shift to better protection of existing reserves. Indigenous peoples have the best record of maintaining forest, but negotiation with these peoples is essential in order to ensure maintenance of the large areas of forest they inhabit. The benefits of environmental services provided by the forest must accrue to those who maintain these forests. Development of mechanisms to capture the value of these services will be a key factor affecting the long-term prospects of Amazonian forests. However, many effective measures to discourage deforestation could be taken immediately through government action, including levying and collecting taxes that discourage land speculation, changing land tenure establishment procedures so as not to reward deforestation, revoking remaining incentives, restricting road building and improvement, strengthening requirements for environmental impact statements (RIMAs) for proposed development projects, and creating employment alternatives.
132 citations
TL;DR: The Trail Problem Assessment Method (TPAM) as mentioned in this paper employs a continuous search for multiple indicators of pre-defined tread problems, yielding census data documenting the location, occurrence and extent of each problem.
Abstract: The degradation of trail resources associated with expanding recreation and tourism visitation is a growing management problem in protected areas worldwide. In order to make judicious trail and visitor management decisions, protected area managers need objective and timely information on trail resource conditions. This paper introduces a trail survey method that efficiently characterizes the location and lineal extent of common trail problems. The method was applied to a large sample of trails within Great Smoky Mountains National Park, a high-use protected area in the USA. The Trail Problem-Assessment Method (TPAM) employs a continuous search for multiple indicators of pre-defined tread problems, yielding census data documenting the location, occurrence and extent of each problem. The present application employed 23 different indicators in three categories to gather inventory, resource condition, and design and maintenance data of each surveyed trail. Seventy-two backcountry hiking trails (528 km), or 35% of the Park's total trail length, were surveyed. Soil erosion and wet soil were found to be the two most common impacts on a lineal extent basis. Trails with serious tread problems were well distributed throughout the Park, although trails with wet muddy treads tended to be concentrated in areas where horse use was high. The effectiveness of maintenance features installed to divert water from trail treads was also evaluated. Water bars were found to be more effective than drainage dips. The TPAM was able to provide Park managers with objective and quantitative information for use in trail planning, management and maintenance decisions, and is applicable to other protected areas elsewhere with different environmental and impact characteristics.
100 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a four-year investigation into the social impacts engendered by two national parks situated in the Saguenay region of Quebec (Canada) was conducted, according to a social impact assessment method.
Abstract: Numerous national parks have been established worldwide to protect nature, but this has not been without social consequences for neighbouring communities. Since the social and economic vitality of adjacent communities is being recognized more and more as indispensable for the success of conservation objectives, the quality of park-community relations has become a critical issue. A four-year investigation into the social impacts engendered by two national parks situated in the Saguenay region of Quebec (Canada) was conducted, according to a social impact assessment method. Several impacts and changes were identified on resource management, on the local economy, on the tourist industry, on involvement and participation of local actors and on the social organization of the neighbouring communities. The significance of these impacts varied according to the community and the actors involved. The results of the present research point to the determining role of the government in general, and of the park management in particular, in the process of local community development. In this regard, recommendations are addressed to local communities to improve their partnership with national parks.
92 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compare the regional environmental impact of indigenous and non-indigenous households in North-west Ecuador, with emphasis on tropical deforestation, and find no significant differences in the recent deforestation associated with each group based on their cultural or ethnic background, although differences did exist in the past.
Abstract: There is general consensus that resource-use strategies of recent migrants in tropical rainforests result in extensive deforestation and other negative environmental impacts. Less agreement exists about the nature and extent of the impact of indigenous and long-standing migrant communities living in rainforests. It has often been argued that the high value these communities place on local resources results in environmental conservation in areas under their control, but this is being increasingly challenged. The aim of this study was to contribute to this debate by comparing the regional environmental impact of indigenous and non-indigenous households in North-west Ecuador, with emphasis on tropical deforestation. The basic premise was that long-term resource-use strategies and related decision-making processes should be discernible as characteristic land-use patterns. Three indigenous and non-indigenous populations coexist in the study region, and demographic, land-use and historical sources of information were used to evaluate their relationship to regional deforestation in the period 1983-93. No significant differences were found in the recent deforestation associated with each group based on their cultural or ethnic background, although differences did exist in the past. The need to differentiate between a given environmental impact and the decision-making process behind it was also evident. In North-west Ecuador, markets, factors of production, and access to and control of resources, are key for understanding the environmental impact of local communities. Low-impact resource-uses often result from low-return productive activities in forest environments with low labour opportunity costs, high discount rates for income generated through activities compromising food security, and from uncertainty about future conditions. Environmental policy-making and programme design need to recognize this relationship. Conservation will be possible only if the perceived benefit to local users is greater than that of resource transformation, both of which respond to the dominant environmental, economic and social conditions at a given time and place. Creating or fostering the appropriate conditions should be a key objective of both.
75 citations
TL;DR: In this article, a review of the literature in the field of extension and technology transfer drawing upon the rural sector primarily in Australia is presented, which reveals a shortage of data on the effectiveness of corporations and other commercial organizations in the technology transfer and adoption processes.
Abstract: There are numerous reasons why land users do not always adopt innovations even though all evidence may suggest that they should. The purpose of this study was to review the literature in the field of extension and technology transfer drawing upon the rural sector primarily in Australia. Australia is now recognized as a world leader in adopting new technology and ideas, particularly those relating to the management of the physical environment but there has been little assessment of the circumstances and constraints surrounding this adoption. The reasons for non-adoption range from complexity of the technology, land user's beliefs and opinions towards the innovation, attitude to risk and conflicting information. For different land-use enterprises and innovations, different constraints will apply and it is argued that these are in three broad categories, characterized by: the land user and the adoption process; the characteristics of, and issues associated with the developers of, the innovation; and the role of extension agents and the transfer process. It is apparent from the changing nature of technology transfer that commercial organizations have assumed a leading role in this field and land users are being recognized as key stakeholders in both the adoption and technology development processes. The study, however, reveals a shortage of data on the effectiveness of corporations and other commercial organizations in the technology transfer and adoption processes.
67 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the legal and managerial development of conservation areas, a recently defined category of protected areas designed to promote conservation through local-level participation and development, is explored, and several potential problems inherent in this designation are discussed.
Abstract: The modern era of wildlife and protected area conservation in Nepal began in 1973 with the passage of comprehensive legislation, and has evolved very quickly as new priorities and problems have emerged. Here we explore the legal and managerial development of conservation areas, a recently-defined category of protected area designed to promote conservation through local-level participation and development. A review of the Conservation Area Management Regulations of 1996 shows that there are several potential problems inherent in this designation. As written, the regulations move power from the government to organizations under governmental contract. Thus, management authority largely remains top-down from the standpoint of local users. We also question how well the designation will protect some sensitive wildlife species, since organizations do not have law enforcement authority under Nepalese legislation.Despite these concerns, there have been several successful conservation area programmes in existence in Nepal since the 1980s and most of the issues addressed are surmountable with the current regulations, providing that several criteria are met. We propose that His Majesty's Government and organizations under contract develop more definitive methods of disbursing funds for local-level projects, and institute social impact assessments. In addition, more attention must be paid to wildlife law enforcement; independent assessments of important wild populations and unique habitats are needed. Finally, we discuss some broader issues that should be better addressed in Nepal and elsewhere, including cross-sectoral coordination within the government.
57 citations
TL;DR: The conclusions are that conservation program planning is currently based on managerial experience and relatively simple scoring procedures, but that a more rational approach based on decision analysis is possible, and additional research would reduce the amount of effort required to use decision analysis for conservation programme planning.
Abstract: Conservation programme planning involves allocating a limited budget amongst different potential conservation projects. The selection of projects for funding is subject to a high degree of uncertainty and a number of competing objectives such as ecological protection, recreation and community relations. The purposes of this paper are to summarize the quantitative methods currently used in deciding which conservation projects to fund and to present a general methodology based on decision analysis that can be used for making conservation programme planning decisions. The methodology directly links the proposed contributions of projects to the objectives of the conservation agency, and it includes an explicit consideration of uncertainty and a conversion of ordinal scores into utilities. The methodology is a rational way of making decisions in conservation situations that are characterized by high degrees of uncertainty and subjective information. An application of decision analysis with staff from the New Zealand Department of Conservation is described. Some of the difficulties with using this methodology in practice are discussed in both the New Zealand and broader contexts. The conclusions are that conservation programme planning is currently based on managerial experience and relatively simple scoring procedures, but that a more rational approach based on decision analysis is possible, and additional research would reduce the amount of effort required to use decision analysis for conservation programme planning.
51 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe the relationships between loss of wetlands and land-use change in Azuaga County, Central-western Iberian Peninsula where during the period 1896-1996, 94% of the original wetlands disappeared.
Abstract: Summary In Spain, it is estimated that 60% of wetlands have disappeared in the last 50 years. The present study aimed to describe the relationships between loss of wetlands and land-use change in Azuaga County, Central-western Iberian Peninsula where during the period 1896‐1996, 94% of the original wetlands disappeared. Forest, scrub, holm oak dehesas and olive groves have become fragmented or disappeared completely, having been substituted by eucalyptus plantations in areas of low productivity and by dry cultivation of herbaceous crops, mainly cereals, in more productive areas. These substitutions have resulted in a homogeneous, coarse-grained landscape with low diversity and high dominance. The type of land-use has depended on the evolution of demographic processes, with high human immigration rates toward the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century, and high emigration rates during the 1960s and 1970s. The mechanization of agriculture and transition from closed to market economy in the second half of the twentieth century also played an essential role in the landscape changes described.
TL;DR: In this paper, the trace elements in cetacean blubber, liver and kidney tissues were collected from 11 Indo-Pacific hump-backed dolphins and 20 finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides) stranded in Hong Kong.
Abstract: There have been few studies of trace elements in cetaceans from Chinese waters despite considerable potential for contamination by this class of pollutant. Between 1993 and 1996, blubber, liver and/or kidney tissues were collected from 11 Indo-Pacific hump-backed dolphins (Sousa chinensis) and 20 finless porpoises (Neophocaena phocaenoides) stranded in Hong Kong. These tissues were analysed for 12 trace elements (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mo, Ni, Pb, Se, Sn and Zn). In general, concentrations of trace elements were similar to those of other cetacean populations and were deemed not to be of any toxicological significance. However, concentrations of mercury in the liver tissues of certain individuals were at levels which could constitute a health risk to the animals (up to 906 mg g-1 dry weight). Cadmium, mercury and selenium were observed to bio-accumulate with age, whereas concentrations of copper were highest in neonatal animals.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors used GIS analyses to evaluate how human activities influence the landscape structure of jaguar habitat in the Sierra de Tamaulipas in Mexico.
Abstract: The Sierra de Tamaulipas is a biogeographically isolated mountain system in Northern Mexico, where habitat fragmentation by land-management practices is a possible threat to wildlife conservation. As a case example, we used GIS analyses to evaluate how human activities influence the landscape structure of jaguar (Panthera onca) habitat in the region. The study: (1) ranked potential habitat based on associations between environmental attributes (topography, streams and vegetation) and the frequency distribution of jaguar sighting records; (2) classified current land cover from a 1990 Landsat-TM image and mapped the landscape structure of high potential habitat; and (3) compared the degree to which mature natural vegetation is fragmented by different types of owners. Jaguar sites showed significant associations with tropical deciduous and oak forests, and low, west or south-east slopes, between 400 and 900 m. About 52% of the high potential habitat was mapped as mature natural vegetation, which was distributed as two large patches (28% of the land area) and many small forest patches (98% at < 80 ha). The number and size-class distribution of high-potential habitat patches varied little amongst four ownership types, but the dispersed distribution of more subsistence and commercial-based owners across the landscape suggests the need for collaborative participation in a conservation plan. From our study the need to scale up from managing individual land parcels is substantiated and areas that promote regional contiguity of jaguar habitat in the Sierra de Tamaulipas are identified.
TL;DR: The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was signed during the 'Earth Summit' at Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 as discussed by the authors, and despite the warm, even euphoric welcome extended to this treaty by the environmental community, the difficulties of implementing the CBD in the last five years are unmasking and uncovering its flawed environmental foundations.
Abstract: Over five years have elapsed since the coming into force of the much heralded United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD or Convention) signed during the 'Earth Summit' at Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 (CBD 1992). Despite the warm, even euphoric welcome extended to this treaty by the environmental community, the difficulties of implementing the CBD in the last five years are unmasking and uncovering its flawed environmental foundations. The language of any legal instrument embodies and expresses the considered intentions of its creators, and may contain obligatory provisions that are legally binding. They may also contain hortatory and aspirational commitments that are not legally enforceable. The CBD rejected 'hard' environmental obligations that are legally binding for non-legal exhortations, and highly qualified 'soft' commitments. Whatever their value be as face-saving strategies for reaching agreement on the CBD, such aspirational expressions do not create a stable foundation for tough decisions in the world of realpolitik.
TL;DR: The results of a written questionnaire assessing the knowledge and attitudes of undergraduate university students majoring in a range of disciplines in the United States of America (USA) and in Costa Rica (CR) regarding population and environment-related issues indicated limited knowledge about human population growth and the environment.
Abstract: A clear understanding of human population growth, consumption patterns, and their effects on the environment, particularly amongst our future leaders, is essential for proper allocation of conservation efforts. We report on the results of a written questionnaire assessing the knowledge and attitudes of undergraduate university students majoring in a range of disciplines in the United States of America (USA) and in Costa Rica (CR) regarding population- and environment-related issues. Our results indicated limited knowledge about human population growth and the environment, with USA students and male students more often responding correctly to factual questions on demography and global environmental change than CR students, who nonetheless were generally more pessimistic about environmental quality and the carrying capacity of the planet. USA students, however, more often recognized the link between human population size and environmental quality. Education on population and environmental issues will be improved if: (1) linkages between population size, consumption, and environmental quality are taught; (2) the effects of individual actions on environmental quality are emphasized; and (3) environmental education is tailored to local issues.
TL;DR: In this article, a case study was undertaken on the floodplain of the Herbert River catchment in north Queensland, utilizing remote sensing and GIS to assess both spatial and temporal changes in freshwater wetlands and riparian forests.
Abstract: Because coral reefs are sensitive to land derived inputs of nutrient and sediment, there is concern worldwide for the effects of anthropogenic change in river catchments on reefs. Thirty-one river catchments drain directly into the waters of the Great Barrier Reef, NE Australia. This case study was undertaken on the floodplain of the Herbert River catchment in north Queensland, utilizing remote sensing and GIS to assess both spatial and temporal changes in freshwater wetlands and riparian forests. We demonstrate that there has been a very large reduction in the area of these ecosystems since European settlement in the mid nineteenth century, with an 80% decline in their extent since 1943. We provide a range of quantitative measures to show that the landscape diversity of these ecosystems has also declined. These changes are of importance in terms of regional, national and international trends. We argue that policy, planning and management reform is required if the remaining ecological, economic and social values of these systems and the adjacent Great Barrier Reef Marine Park are to be maintained.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors compared traditional and modern processing methods to see if new technology stands to increase the efficiency, size and cost effectiveness of harvest of Sooty Shearwater chicks.
Abstract: Rakiura Maori (a tribe of indigenous people in New Zealand) continue a centuries-old customary use of Sooty Shearwater ( Puffinus griseus , titi , muttonbird) chicks from islands adjacent to Rakiura (Stewart Island). Some muttonbirders pluck chicks by hand, while others have recently changed to a plucking machine. We compared traditional and modern processing methods to see if new technology stands to increase the efficiency, size and cost effectiveness of harvest. On average, chicks were plucked 6 seconds quicker with a machine, which could potentially increase the catch by up to 4%. Innovation by using wax rather than water to remove down left after plucking saved muttonbirders 29–97 minutes per day, potentially allowing up to a 15% increase in the number of chicks harvested. Both wax and plucking machines increased costs, which led to a modest financial gain from using wax, but a net loss from using a plucking machine. Modern technologies have been introduced mainly for convenience and to ease labour in this customary use of wildlife. New technology may erode traditional skills, but does not necessarily pose a risk to the sustainability of a resource. Financial investment in harvest technologies might provide an incentive to increase harvest levels, but could equally provide an incentive to manage for sustainable use. Preservation lobbies are not justified in presuming that new technologies will always threaten wildlife traditionally used by indigenous people.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors proposed a method for studying time allocation as an early step in the co-management of conservation areas, which is illustrated from a conservation project in Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve (DSWR) in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, where data from spot observations were analyzed at three levels, namely those of'macro-categories' (production, reproduction and leisure), an intermediate level (e.g., agriculture and f ood preparation), and that of individual activities (such as fishing, collection of forest foods and hunting).
Abstract: Development of management plans collaboratively with local people (e.g. co-management) is now an important means of protected area conservation. Yet formal protected area managers often need more specific information about the local people with whom they want to co-manage resources. We propose wider use of a method, which we describe, for studying time allocation, as an early step in the co-management of conservation areas. Use of time allocation data in co-management is illustrated from a conservation project in Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve (DSWR) in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Data from spot observations were analysed at three levels, namely those of 'macro-categories' (production, reproduction and leisure), an intermediate level (e.g. agriculture and f ood preparation), and that of individual activities (such as fishing, collection of forest foods and hunting). In the DSWR, the allocation of time differed according to gender, ethnicity and seasonality, throughout the year of the study. Our experience suggests that knowledge of such patterns of behaviour can help conservation area managers to understand local people's needs and desires better, improve managers' rapport with local people, and make better cooperative plans with local people
TL;DR: Conservation biologists may now have a tool to identify the minimum habitat areas needed to conserve populations of carnivore species, and theoretical ecologists can relate ecological space at the population level to allometric variables.
Abstract: The spatial requirements of populations ought to be central to developing conservation strategies and ecological theory, but they are difficult to identify from the published collection of reported population estimates. Transforming population estimates into density and log values may have clouded recognition of the discontinuous relationship that exists between abundance estimates and the areas within which they were made. I used abundance estimates of terrestrial mammalian Carnivora to identify scale domains of abundance. In scale domain A, the study areas were too small to include all the individuals of the population, and abundance estimates increased propor-tionally with study area size. Scale domain B included high variation in abundance estimates, but these estimates no longer increased with increasing size of study area as they did in domain A. I refer to the smallest area in the scale domain B as the 'threshold area' (the minimum area known to support a population of the particular species). The abundance in scale domain B averaged 52 individuals amongst all but three outlier species. Scale domains C and D were also identified, and included much larger study areas and substantially larger abundance estimates.The threshold area is the first empirically-derived representation of the minimum space used by populations of each species. However, nearly half of all carnivore abundance estimates were made in areas smaller than the threshold area, and only 4% could be used to represent transitions between scale domains B, C and D. The remainder varied within domains B, C and D due to variation in environmental conditions and research methods. Most comparisons of density between sites and between species have been made without considering whether the estimates represented the true population or some collection of individuals more or less abundant than the population. Threshold area can be used as a standard area against which to estimate and compare population density, in lieu of more appropriately comparing estimates of region-wide density, which generally do not yet exist. Also, threshold area could be predicted with reasonable error rates based on a typical species' body mass, brain mass and home range size. Therefore, conservation biologists may now have a tool to identify the minimum habitat areas needed to conserve populations of carnivore species, and theoretical ecologists can relate ecological space at the population level to allometric variables.
TL;DR: Despite the increasing call for cooperation amongst the states parties to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (UNTS 3069), the management of protected areas adjacent to political borders is rarely thought of as a common necessity for neighbouring countries as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Despite the increasing call for cooperation amongst the states parties to the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity (UNTS 3069; see especially its Articles 5, 17, 18 and 20), the management of protected areas adjacent to political borders is rarely thought of as a common necessity for neighbouring countries. Setting up a zone dedicated to conservation is already a formidable challenge in the face of strongly competing interests for land. Bringing this about with two or more sovereign states sometimes seems a ‘gratuitous layer of complexity that spells almost certain failure’ (Westing 1998b). Nevertheless, transboundary protected areas are becoming increasingly common (IUCN, unpublished 1998). In fact, no less than 136 such protected area complexes involving over 406 individual protected areas and 112 different international boundaries (Zbicz & Green 1997) have been identified around the world. If proposed areas are also included, this figure can be pushed up to 200 complexes (Brunner 1998).
TL;DR: In this article, the utility of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) in performing this task is illustrated using data on ecoregions and areas in the National Wilderness Preservation System to determine the relative protection currently afforded to different regions in the continental USA.
Abstract: Wilderness designation continues to be a contentious effort and must be fully justified even in wealthy countries such as the USA. An important consideration in setting priorities for additional designations of Wilderness is to ensure that under-represented ecosystems are protected. The utility of Geographic Information Systems in performing this task is illustrated using data on ecoregions and areas in the National Wilderness Preservation System to determine the relative protection currently afforded to different ecoregions in the continental USA. We find that 23 of the 35 ecoregions have less than 1% of their land area protected as Wilderness, and 7 of the 35 have no land protected as Wilderness whatsoever. While much of the land with little protection is in areas dominated by private land ownership in the mid-west and southeast, a surprisingly large amount of land in the Intermountain states of Nevada and Utah, which is in public ownership, is substantially under-represented in the National Wilderness Preservation System as well. The implications of this analysis for wilderness allocation strategies are detailed. The technique illustrated in this paper is a useful aid in designing protected area strategies in countries throughout the world.
TL;DR: The study supports the widely held views on European forest quality: low volume of high-diameter snags and logs, too few overmature trees, and the threat to pattern heterogeneity caused by traditional forestry and silviculture.
Abstract: Wetland forest communities are seriously reduced and degraded throughout most of Europe, but significant areas still survive in the east and north-east. Data from 91 forest structures that support biodiversity are analysed in 369 releves of Latvian wetland forests. These structures include variations in topography, stand composition, water movement and dead wood features occurring in semi-natural conditions undisturbed by management. There is clear structural differentiation between coniferous and deciduous wetlands. The study supports the widely held views on European forest quality: low volume of high-diameter (>50 cm) snags and logs, too few overmature trees, and the threat to pattern heterogeneity caused by traditional forestry and silviculture. Twenty areas (totalling c. 3800 ha) are identified as reserves that should be strictly protected in Latvia in order to maintain representative and intact samples of wet forest belonging to Eurosiberian alder swamps (Alnetea glutinosae), broad-leaved forests (Querco-Fagetea) and boreal forest (Vaccinio-Piceetea) communities. Based on habitat features and site ecology, the concept of sustainable forestry must be incorporated widely in utilization of European wetland forests in order to prevent further loss of biodiversity.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe responses of vegetation in the lower Volga Delta to these substantial sea-level changes using an analysis of historic vegetation maps produced by aerial photography and satellite imagery.
Abstract: During the twentieth century the level of the Caspian Sea dropped from -26 m (1930) to -29 m (1977) below global sea level and subsequently rose again to -2666 m in 1996 We aimed to describe responses of the vegetation in the lower Volga Delta to these substantial sea-level changes using an analysis of historic vegetation maps produced by aerial photography and satellite imagery The sea level drop in the earlier part of the century was followed by rapid progression of the vegetation The subsequent rapid sea-level rise in the 1980s did however not result in similarly rapid regression of the vegetation This partial irreversibility of the vegetation response to sea-level change is explained by the wide flooding tolerance of the major emergent species, namely Phragmites australis Floating vegetation increased in extent, most likely due to the increased availability of more favourable conditions, particularly for Nelumbo nucifera, a tropical plant reaching its northernmost distribution in the Volga Delta This species increased in distribution from 35 ha in the 1930s throughout the entire Volga Delta to several thousands of hectares in the Astrakhanskiy Biosphere Reserve alone in the 1980s The reported sea-level changes swept the ecosystems in the Astrakhanskiy Biosphere Reserve back and forth within the Reserve boundaries At longer time scales, ten-fold greater sealevel change has been reported The ecosystems for which the Reserve is renowned might be pushed completely out of the Reserve under these conditions We therefore question whether the current Reserve will be sufficiently large to guarantee conservation of the biota in the lower Volga Delta at longer time scales
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the costs and benefits of ecotourism and provided several management options to increase the conservation benefits and minimize the negative impacts of tourism on the islands.
Abstract: Summary The >150 islands in north-western Mexico are relatively pristine, but may easily be damaged by unregulated human use. Tourists visit many of these islands, but their numbers and impact are unknown. To examine some of the costs and benefits of ecotourism we sent a questionnaire to 42 ecotourism companies that visit islands in north-western Mexico; 29 respondents reported that tourist days on these islands had increased at >7% yr -1 , from <15 000 in 1986 to about 47 000 in 1993. Neither government regulation nor cost of trips were reported to be important impediments to tourism growth. In 1993, ecotourist organizations visiting islands reported spending US$3.7 million, none of which went directly to the protection and management of the islands. We provide several management options to increase the conservation benefits of ecotourism and minimize the negative impacts.
TL;DR: In this article, the dynamics of the landscape elements and the spatial pattern of Minorca were analyzed to test whether this human-modelled landscape was at a stationary state, and, if it was the case, to see whether the system could be characterized by a particular spatial pattern.
Abstract: The island of Minorca, Spain, has become a patchy mosaic landscape as a result of centuries of human-induced fragmentation. The dynamics of the landscape elements and the spatial pattern of Minorca were analysed to test whether this human-modelled landscape was at a stationary state, and, if it was the case, to see whether the system could be characterized by a particular spatial pattern. Landsat TM satellite images were processed to derive land cover classification and vegetation index maps corresponding to the years 1984 and 1992, the best compromise between null cloudiness and maximum time span. The classification was used to test the stationary state by estimating the transition matrix of land cover. The Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) was used to analyse the spatial pattern of change at the patch level. The spatial analysis of NDVI was based on four indices: fractal dimension, number and size distribution of patches, and spatial Kappa index. Those pattern descriptors were compared with values obtained from stochastic landscape simulations. Temporal analysis showed that land cover proportions remained approximately constant over the 8-year period, although interchange amongst patches existed. This suggested that the landscape of Minorca was close to a stationary state. The study of NDVI changes revealed that the spatial structure was different from that of neutral models and presented scale invariance properties. Results from land cover transitions and from NDVI patterning suggest that the landscape of Minorca is a critical system, in the framework of the self-organized criticality hypothesis, i.e. the mosaic of patches would self-organize at the frontier of a dynamic equilibrium constituted by the balance between disturbances and successional processes.
TL;DR: The response of environmental scientists when the world and the Earth appear to be heading toward exceptional crisis has been examined in this paper. But the response of scientists to the public assertions that there indeed could be environmental Armageddon ahead (e.g., Union of Concerned Scientists 1992; US National Academy of Sciences and Royal Society of London 1992) has been questioned.
Abstract: What should be the response of environmental scientists when the world and the Earth appear to be heading toward exceptional crisis? Some scientists have signed up to public assertions that there indeed could be environmental Armageddon ahead (e.g. Union of Concerned Scientists 1992; US National Academy of Sciences and Royal Society of London 1992). Other scientists proclaim that our most valuable resource is not environmental well-being but professional credibility; the 'cry wolf' risk is the key determinant. Others appear to prefer to be scientists pure and simple, eschewing the policy arena, let alone the political scrum. Still others seem to think that warning of prospective crisis, even warning amongst themselves, is out of protocol's court.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors describe three of the remedial methods currently under investigation, namely enhanced in-situ remediation, pond draining through ditching or pumping, and dredging.
Abstract: With the closure of many military bases worldwide and a closer scrutiny of practices on remaining bases, the environmental impact of the military is now an important consideration in the operation of bases. Many previously-unknown environmental problems related to chemicals are surfacing. White phosphorus, a chemical commonly used as an obscurant, is a chemical previously thought to be innocuous after use. In 1990, however, it was linked to the deaths of thousands of waterfowl at the Eagle River Flats impact area on Ft Richardson near Anchorage, Alaska, USA, and shortly after, a series of remedial investigations was initiated. This paper describes three of the remedial methods currently under investigation, namely enhanced in-situ remediation, pond draining through ditching or pumping, and dredging. These three approaches are best applied in different environments, but they can be used together or in conjunction with other strategies. Their impacts on the environment will vary as well.Experience with these remediation strategies has proven very useful in determining the direction that the clean-up effort at Eagle River Flats (ERF) should take. Dredging, an effective means of removing contaminated sediments for off-site remediation, has been shown to be too slow and expensive at the ERF because unexploded ordnance is present. Enhanced natural remediation is effective under favourable climatological conditions in areas that experience intermittent flooding, but desaturation of the sediments is critical to its effectiveness. Pond draining by blasting a ditch effectively removes waterfowl feeding habitat, but attenuation of the contaminant is inhibited because the ditch increases flooding frequency, and the habitat alteration is permanent. Pond pumping, where feasible, has shown great potential for the desaturating of wide areas of ERF, enabling the natural attenuation mechanism to progress. Further investigation will be necessary to confirm these initial conclusions and determine the overall effectiveness of all three methodologies. Methods developed over the course of this work may be applied to other remediation projects where in-situ volatilization can occur and limited disturbance of wetlands is critical.
TL;DR: A response to that call, and hopefully will serve to stimulate further debate on the topic is presented in this paper, where the authors argue that pro-active scientists can or should be in leading public debate about the state of the environment.
Abstract: Norman Myers recently challenged scientists to consider the social responsibilities that derive from their expertise and knowledge (Myers 1999). He raised important questions regarding how pro-active scientists can or should be in leading public debate about the state of the environment. This article is a response to that call, and hopefully will serve to stimulate further debate on the topic.