Showing papers in "European Journal of Criminology in 2012"

Victimology in transitional justice:Victimhood, innocence and hierarchy

Abstract: Although addressing the needs of victims is increasingly proffered as the key rationale for transitional justice, serious critical discussion on the political and social construction of victimhood is only tentatively emerging in the field. Drawing from Anglo-American victimology, the first part of this paper suggests that victims of crime as a category are often perceived as the mirror opposite of perpetrators of crime. It suggests that such a perspective narrows the notion of victims’ rights or needs so they become intrinsically linked to the punishment of perpetrators; that victims and perpetrators are reified and distinct categories; and that ‘true’ victim status demands innocence. The second part of the paper takes these insights and applies them to the context of transitional justice. In particular, it questions the notion of ‘innocence’ as a prerequisite for victim recognition and explores the ways in which victims and perpetrators are not always easily identified as distinct categories in conflicted or transitional societies. The paper concludes that incorporating blame in the calibration of human suffering results in the morally corrosive language of a ‘hierarchy of victims’.

Turning points and returning points: Understanding the role of family ties in the process of desistance

Abstract: The objective of this article is to identify the interpersonal factors that explain narratives of desistance among offenders who have been sentenced to prison. Through narrative interviews, we have studied a purposeful age-graded sample of men convicted of acquisitive crimes. Although the results confirm the leading research of Laub and Sampson (2003) about the importance of social bonds as a change catalyst, they also suggest that changes in narratives may depend not only on participation in new social institutions but also on the new meaning that institutions present during the criminal career of offenders, such as family relationships, may acquire in adulthood.

Intergenerational transmission of criminal behaviour: Conviction trajectories of fathers and their children

Abstract: This article investigates father and offspring criminal careers by employing the semi-parametric, group-based trajectories methodology. The findings demonstrate that children of sporadic and chronic offenders have significantly more convictions than children of non-offenders. However, contrary to expectations based on taxonomic and intergenerational theories, chronic offending fathers do not have more chronic offending children than sporadic fathers. The results demonstrate strong intergenerational transmission of criminal behaviour, but it is the fathers having a conviction rather than their conviction trajectory that is related to offspring convictions.

Peers and delinquency among girls and boys: are sex differences in delinquency explained by peer factors?

Abstract: In this article, we investigate sex differences in the relationship between peers and delinquency. We analyse to what extent peers have different effects on delinquency among girls and boys, and to what extent sex differences in the level of delinquency can be explained by differential exposure or vulnerability to criminogenic peer contexts. Data are used from the School Study of the Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement, in which rich data about peers were collected, including measurements of peer delinquency as reported by nominated peers themselves, time spent with peers, peer attachment, peer pressure and the sex composition of peer networks. The results indicate that, although the characteristics of peer relationships differ in many respects between the sexes, the effects of peers on delinquent behaviour are remarkably similar for girls and boys. Further, it appears that the investigated peer variables explain a substantial part of the sex differences in delinquent behaviour.

Dealing with a gendered economy: Female drug dealers and street capital:

Abstract: Early studies of female drug dealers suggest that women are marginalized, passive victims. In contrast, more recent studies describe women as skilful and competent dealers. In a Bourdieu-inspired theoretical framework of ‘street capital’, we suggest that the truth is somewhere in between. Female dealers can be successful, but they face more obstacles than men do. The illegal hard-drug economy is gendered and favours men. In this paper we discuss how female drug dealers develop particular strategies to prove they still belong in ‘the game’. Four such strategies are emphasized: desexualization, violent posture, emotional detachment and service-mindedness. These are common strategies for all drug dealers, but the gendered economy forces female dealers to be particularly careful about their business and self-presentation.

Massacres as process: A micro-sociological theory of internal patterns of mass atrocities:

Abstract: Mass atrocities are episodes of violence that do not unfold at random: (a) there are recurrent patterns in the forms that violent behavior takes; (b) the chain of events in which violence unfolds is patterned internally, that is, there are processual patterns. These patterns are not the mere outcome or reflection of larger structures such as ethnic conflict; violence instead has patterns (including processual patterns) with a logic of their own. By tracing the onset and early phases of massacres in Srebrenica and Rwanda, it is shown that patterns of violence are shaped by local emotional dynamics. The paper builds on recent findings in the micro-sociology of violence by Collins and others and on Horowitz’s research on the processual character of violence in riots.

What determines the trust of immigrants in criminal justice institutions in Europe

Abstract: This study examines whether the confidence of immigrants in European countries in criminal justice institutions can be explained by two counteracting processes: expectations formed in the country o...

Routine activities and fear of crime: Specifying individual-level mechanisms

Abstract: Studies have examined individual-level associations between fear of crime and various environmental and cognitive assessments but have largely dismissed the relationship between various dimensions ...

Contextualizing mass atrocity crimes: The dynamics of ‘extremely violent societies’:

Abstract: Mass violence and genocidal events are presently characterized by new patterns that clearly set them apart from previous genocides and mass atrocities. These changes in the nature of mass atrocity ...

Ethnic heterogeneity in the activity and structure of a Black street gang

Abstract: Despite acknowledgment of ‘hybrid’ street gangs in the literature, there is little systematic research into ethnic heterogeneity within gangs. This research aims at moving beyond the broad categorization of the Black street gang. For this purpose, we examine an all-Black London-based gang in detail, using fieldwork and police arrest data, and investigate the role of ethnic heterogeneity for the workings of the gang. Our findings suggest that ethnic heterogeneity within this gang is crucial for its criminal operation. Although there is no evidence for ethnicity-related specialization of crime, the structural co-offending pattern of the gang’s activities is dominated by ethnicity. Ethnicity matters for who offends with whom.

Divided by a common concept? Assessing the implications of different conceptualizations of hate crime in the European Union:

Abstract: In recent years the European Union (EU) has witnessed rising levels of hate crime. However, although there have been a number of legislative and other policy initiatives introduced across the EU to combat such offences, these have developed in a piecemeal and sometimes half-hearted fashion. This article outlines the difficulties evident in theorizing hate crime and how these problems have been reflected in the divergent ways that hate crime legislation has developed across the EU. It argues that an approach to combating hate crime based on human rights, which is endorsed by many EU institutions, has failed to tackle the problem effectively and has resulted in the uneven protection of hate crime victim groups. By utilizing an individual rather than a group-based human rights approach, the damaging nature and effect of such ‘targeted victimization’ upon all hate crime victims can be better understood and addressed.

Violence against women in intimate relations: A contrast of five theories

Abstract: This paper explores the correlates of violence against women in intimate relations. Using data from a large victimization survey, we assess five theoretical explanations based on patterns of association between violence and key attitudinal and socio-demographic variables: sexism, family violence, dependency, exchange and status inconsistency. We conclude that status inconsistency, understood as a complex multidimensional theory of patriarchy that integrates core elements of other theories, offers the best explanation. Women's odds of suffering violence are higher if they have sexist partners, are disempowered or have higher statuses than their partners. Disempowered women have fewer resources to oppose the sexist culture on which violence breeds. Women with elevated statuses defy men's dominance. Violence is intrinsic to a patriarchal system of power that fosters sexism and manifests violently when women are vulnerable or challenge men's statuses. Language: en

Do the police trust in citizens? European comparisons:

Abstract: Trust is expected to promote cooperation between the police and citizens. The trust of citizens in the police has been studied a great deal. This article, however, focuses on the other side of this...

Consistency of international sentencing: ICTY and ICTR case study

Abstract: The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda are the first, post Cold War international criminal tribunals convicting perpetrators of genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes. Their sentencing practice has been largely criticized as inconsistent. This quantitative study addresses the criticism and empirically investigates the consistency of international sentencing. The extent to which the selected factors predict sentence length is tested in a multiple regression analysis. The analysis suggests that similar, legally relevant patterns have emerged in the sentencing practice of both tribunals. Sentencing in international criminal practice does not appear to be less consistent than sentencing under domestic jurisdictions.

Trials of loyalty: Ethnic minority police officers as 'outsiders' within a greedy institution

Abstract: In this article we interrogate how ethnicity interfaces with the police culture in a major Swedish police force. While addressing administrative levels, in particular police security officers’ screening of new recruits, we focus on the role that loyalty plays in defining how ethnicity interacts with mechanisms of exclusion and inclusion in the structures of rank-and-file police culture. The police authorities, perceived as ‘greedy institutions’, demand and enforce exclusive loyalty. We argue that ethnic minority officers are rigorously tested as regards their loyalty to their fellow officers and to the police organization, and the demands made on their undivided loyalty and the misgivings as to their unstinting loyalty act as barriers to inclusion in the organization.

The characteristics and violence risk management of women arrested by the police for intimate partner violence

Abstract: Research and management efforts in the area of intimate partner violence (IPV) have primarily focused on male perpetrators and female victims, resulting in more limited knowledge of female IPV perpetrators and their male victims. In the current study the violence risk assessments of police officers were examined in order to outline the characteristics of female perpetrators of IPV and their male victims. In addition, the officers’ assessments of violence risk and proposed risk management strategies are presented. Results reveal some similarities between the female perpetrators and male victims and their more studied counterparts. However, differences appear to be present in the perceived violence risk posed by the perpetrators and the violence risk management strategies proposed to reduce that risk and protect the victim. The results suggest a need for further research in the area, particularly with respect to the violence risk assessment and management of female IPV perpetrators.

Schools, strain and offending: Testing a school contextual version of General Strain Theory:

Abstract: Based on the idea that schools are important socializing settings for adolescents (Gottfredson, 2001), the school contextual version of General Strain Theory (Agnew, 1999) is tested in this article. The main hypothesis of this study is that strain at the school level affects individual offending by creating individual strain. Findings suggest that school contextual effects differ: convincing contextual effects are found for violent offending but not for general offending. Furthermore, although the school mean level of strain does significantly affect individual violent offending, this effect does not proceed by creating individual strain. It is therefore suggested that the school mean level of strain either has a direct effect on violent offending or influences other important individual offending mechanisms such as social learning or lifestyle risks.

Self-protective behaviours against crime in urban settings: An empirical approach to vulnerability and victimization models:

Abstract: Previous research on the relationships between age, sex, ethnic group or previous victimization experience and fear of crime is controversial, as inconsistent results have been obtained, many of th...

Police–youth relationships: A qualitative analysis of Flemish adolescents’ attitudes toward the police:

Abstract: This article reports on focus group interview-based research conducted to improve knowledge of European adolescents' Attitudes Toward the Police (ATP). The study explores Flemish Belgian youths' perceptions of three main aspects of policing (performance, procedural justice and distributive justice) and how much importance they attach to those perceptions. The 106 13-19 year olds who participated in 12 focus group interviews proved to have nuanced and mature conceptions of police work. They stated that proclaiming a negative ATP is 'part of the deal' of being young rather than a reflection of negative perceptions of police functioning. This study shows the importance of complementing the largely survey-based research on adolescents' ATP with qualitative research.

Differential association and substance use: Assessing the roles of discriminant validity, socialization, and selection in traditional empirical tests

Abstract: Although the correlation between personal and perceived peer substance use remains among the strongest in criminology, the discriminant validity of personal and perceived peer measures remains to b...

Child sexual exploitation and youth offending: A research note.

Abstract: Links between child sexual exploitation (CSE) and youth offending should be better recognised, according to these preliminary research findings from the UK. Data from a leading CSE service provider and Youth Offending Team were analysed for the period 2001–2010 inclusive. Of CSE victims, 40 percent had offending records and recidivism rates were high. Together they committed 1586 offences – 5 percent of all local youth crime. Male and female offending behaviour differed significantly. The types of offences identified were potentially symptomatic of CSE. Referral to CSE services typically post-dated arrest, indicating that children were recognised first as offenders. Challenges in researching the interactions between these two complex issues are discussed. This study has important implications for youth justice policy and practice, both nationally and internationally.

The effect of labour market absence on finding employment: A comparison between ex-prisoners and unemployed future prisoners:

Abstract: A period of labour market absence reduces one’s chances of getting a job. The labour market position of both imprisoned and unemployed individuals tends to worsen after their time out of the labour market. This study considers whether imprisonment has ‘scarring’ effects on job acquisition over and above unemployment. Using a unique quasi-experimental design with a high-risk sample, we conduct event history analyses in order to estimate the time to employment for a group of ex-prisoners (n = 1159) and a group of unemployed future prisoners (n = 271). The results show that ex-prisoners find employment more quickly and more often than unemployed future prisoners. This suggests that job assistance and deterrence may have positive effects on the job chances of released prisoners.

Genocide and the dynamics of victimization: Some observations on Armenia

Abstract: Victimology, following in the train of criminology, is starting to incorporate genocide into its research and theory. How will this new direction affect understandings of genocide, and how might it reshape victimology itself? We begin by proposing a new term, victimality, to indicate a group’s potential for victimization by genocide and other atrocity crimes. Then we rework two of victimology’s traditional concepts – victim precipitation and victim proneness – to show how they might be used to analyse the dynamics of genocidal processes. We apply the three concepts to the Armenian genocide of 1915 and suggest ways in which victimologists might engage further with the crime of all crimes.

Shades of professionalism: Risk assessment in pre‐sentence reports in Sweden

Abstract: An emphasis on risk assessment has been introduced in the instructions guiding pre-sentence reports in Sweden. Since this focus indicates an organizational aspiration to risk management, we examine...

"Man's best possession": period effects in the association between marriage and offending

Abstract: We assess to what extent the associations between marriage and offending differ for high-risk men marrying in two distinct periods: 1930–70 and 1971–2006. Between these two periods, power relations...

Socioeconomic differences in violent victimization: Exploring the impact of data source and the inclusivity of the violence concept

Abstract: Research on socioeconomic differences in violent victimization has relied on surveys. Nationally representative register-based data sets, increasingly used in Nordic criminology, have not been used in such research. We analyse socioeconomic differences in violent victimization in Finland using both survey and register-based data, and assess whether these differences vary by severity of violence. The results show that the data source and the inclusivity of the definition of violence affect the observed socioeconomic differences, with differentials being larger for more severe violence in both data sets and in register rather than in survey data. We conclude that the link between socioeconomic status and victimization is unquestionable when the risk of severe violence is studied.

Measuring juvenile delinquency: How do self-reports compare with official police statistics?

Abstract: The accuracy of measuring the prevalence of delinquency by means of self-reported questionnaires is difficult to evaluate. This study assesses the differential validity of self-reported delinquency in adolescents and, more specifically, self-reported police contacts because of suspected misconduct. This study was conducted as part of the Rotterdam Youth Monitor, a youth health surveillance system. Self-report data of pupils (mainly 12–15 years old) in the first or third grade of secondary school in the school years 2007–8 and 2008–9 (n = 23,914) were merged with police data. Of the pupils registered as a suspect, 62 percent admitted to having been interrogated at the police station. However, there were differences between groups. Multivariate analysis showed that Moroccan pupils and first-grade pupils were more likely to give an invalid response. Pupils who were registered for theft, vandalism or assault were more likely to give a valid response, whereas pupils who were registered for an offence involving...

Does the mobility of foreign offenders fit the general pattern of mobility

Abstract: Research on offender mobility is directed to three main elements: distance, anchor points, and direction. Previous research in geographical criminology has revealed that: (1) the journey to crime i...