Showing papers in "European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology in 2014"

Understanding the glycerol market

Abstract: As a result of the booming biodiesel and oleochemicals manufacturing taking place worldwide since more than a decade, 2 million tonnes of glycerol consistently reach the market every year, even though after a decade of growth the total glycerol supply is expected to slightly decrease in 2014. Today the supply of glycerol is entirely independent of its demand, as there is as much glycerol as the amount of vegetable oils and animal fats are hydrolyzed to make oleochemicals, or transesterified to produce biodiesel. This unique situation has led to consistently low glycerol prices, which initiated both the market penetration of glycerol in countries where it was not used due to traditional high price, as well as new uses of glycerol as raw material for the production of value added chemicals. This article sheds light on the market of this uniquely versatile chemical whose number of applications is unique amid all existing chemicals. About 2 million tonnes of glycerol consistently reach the market every year, even though after a decade of growth the total glycerol supply is expected to slightly decrease in 2014. Today the supply of glycerol is entirely independent of its demand, as there is as much glycerol as the amount of vegetable oils and animal fats are hydrolyzed to make oleochemicals, or transesterified to produce biodiesel. This article sheds light on the market of this uniquely versatile chemical whose number of applications is unique amid all existing chemicals.

The use of natural and synthetic phospholipids as pharmaceutical excipients

Abstract: In pharmaceutical formulations, phospholipids obtained from plant or animal sources and synthetic phospholipids are used. Natural phospholipids are purified from, e.g., soybeans or egg yolk using non-toxic solvent extraction and chromatographic procedures with low consumption of energy and minimum possible waste. Because of the use of validated purification procedures and sourcing of raw materials with consistent quality, the resulting products differing in phosphatidylcholine content possess an excellent batch to batch reproducibility with respect to phospholipid and fatty acid composition. The natural phospholipids are described in pharmacopeias and relevant regulatory guidance documentation of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and European Medicines Agency (EMA). Synthetic phospholipids with specific polar head group, fatty acid composition can be manufactured using various synthesis routes. Synthetic phospholipids with the natural stereochemical configuration are preferably synthesized from glycerophosphocholine (GPC), which is obtained from natural phospholipids, using acylation and enzyme catalyzed reactions. Synthetic phospholipids play compared to natural phospholipid (including hydrogenated phospholipids), as derived from the number of drug products containing synthetic phospholipids, a minor role. Only in a few pharmaceutical products synthetic phospholipids are used. Natural phospholipids are used in oral, dermal, and parenteral products including liposomes. Natural phospholipids instead of synthetic phospholipids should be selected as phospholipid excipients for formulation development, whenever possible, because natural phospholipids are derived from renewable sources and produced with more ecologically friendly processes and are available in larger scale at relatively low costs compared to synthetic phospholipids. Practical applications: For selection of phospholipid excipients for pharmaceutical formulations, natural phospholipids are preferred compared to synthetic phospholipids because they are available at large scale with reproducible quality at lower costs of goods. They are well accepted by regulatory authorities and are produced using less chemicals and solvents at higher yields. In order to avoid scale up problems during pharmaceutical development and production, natural phospholipid excipients instead of synthetic phospholipids should be selected whenever possible.

Very long chain omega‐3 (n‐3) fatty acids and human health

Abstract: Omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids are a family of polyunsaturated fatty acids that contribute to human health and well-being. Functionally the most important n-3 fatty acids appear to be eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoioc acid (DHA), but roles for n-3 docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) are now emerging. Intakes of EPA and DHA are usually low, typically below recommended intakes. Increased intakes are reflected in greater incorporation into blood lipid, cell and tissue pools. Increased content of EPA and DHA modifies the structure of cell membranes and the function of membrane proteins involved as receptors, signaling proteins, transporters, and enzymes. EPA and DHA modify the production of lipid mediators and through effects on cell signaling can alter patterns of gene expression. Through these actions EPA and DHA alter cell and tissue responsiveness in a manner that seems to result in more optimal conditions for growth, development, and maintenance of health. The effects of n-3 fatty acids are evident right through the life course, meaning that there is a need for all sectors of the population to have a sufficient intake of these important nutrients. EPA and DHA have a wide range of physiological roles which are linked to certain health or clinical benefits. Practical application: Very long chain omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids are found in seafood, especially fatty fish, and in supplements. They exert a range of health benefits as a result of their molecular, cellular and physiological actions. Consequently, very long chain n-3 fatty acids play important roles in growth, development, optimal function, and maintenance of health and well-being right across the life course. Therefore, all sectors of the population need to ensure sufficient intake of these important nutrients. This can be achieved through eating fatty fish or, failing that, use of good quality supplements.

New biobased epoxy materials from cardanol

Abstract: Commercial epoxidized cardanol, from cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL), is a biobased epoxide reactant with interesting aromatic structure. Epoxidized cardanol was thoroughly analyzed using 1H and 13C NMR, size exclusion chromatography, and titration in order to determine the structure. This epoxidized cardanol was reacted with isophorone diamine and Jeffamine D400 diamine in order to synthesize epoxy networks. These epoxy networks, formulated in stoichiometry ratio, were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, dynamic mechanical analysis analyses and were compared to bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (DGEBA) network. Cardanol-based epoxy materials exhibit interesting mechanical and thermal properties for coatings. Practical application: The reactant described in this contribution, i.e. epoxidized cardanol from CNSL, provides biobased aromatic building blocks for further epoxy resin syntheses by reaction with amine hardeners. The obtained epoxy networks are partially biobased and may be applied as binders and coatings.

Cold-pressed Japanese quince (Chaenomeles japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. ex Spach) seed oil as a rich source of α-tocopherol, carotenoids and phenolics: A comparison of the composition and antioxidant activity with nine other plant oils

Abstract: New cold-pressed oil recovered from seeds of Japanese quince (Chaenomeles japonica (Thunb) Lindl ex Spach, family: Rosaceae), obtained as a by-product of fruit processing, was characterized and compared with nine well-known oils The Japanese quince seed oil had the highest amounts of tocopherols, β-carotene, and total phenolic compounds (72620; 1077 and 6403 mg/kg, respectively) and the lowest amount of chlorophyll (012 mg/kg) and peroxide value (059 mEq O2/kg) compared to sesame, poppy, peanut, flaxseed, pumpkin, sunflower, almond, hazelnut, and walnut oils A correlation was found between the total contents of tocochromanols, β-carotene, phenolic compounds, and the radical-scavenging capacity of the oils (094, 068, 063, respectively), and also between the amount of chlorophyll and the CIE a* coordinate (080) and the amount of β-carotene and the CIE b* coordinate (047) In Japanese quince seed oil, 13 fatty acids were identified with three predominating: palmitic acid (1007%), oleic acid (3455%), and linoleic acid (5235%) The highest consumer acceptance was noted for hazelnut and walnut oils, while it was lowest for the poppy and flaxseed oils Amygdalin was not detected in the Japanese quince seed oil Practical applications: This study demonstrated that Japanese quince seed oil is a richer source of nutritional bio-components than other commercial cold-pressed oils The positive results of sensory evaluation and the absence of amygdalin in the oil indicates its potential future use in food Moreover, it is recovered from by-products of fruit industry; therefore, its utilization in obtaining of new, healthy products ensures environmental sustainability and a more effective use of harvested plant material

Fatty acid alterations in oils and fats during heating and frying

Abstract: Oils and fats degrade during the frying process and many reactions with numerous fatty acid alteration products have been examined. The geometrical isomerisation of double bonds leads to the formation of trans fatty acids. At frying temperatures also conjugated double bond systems are detected. The reaction of oxygen with unsaturated fatty acids results in hydroperoxides, which immediately degrade in further radical reactions at frying temperature. A set of oxygenated fatty acids has been detected including epoxy-, keto- and hydroxyl fatty acids. Another route leads to β-scission at the carbonyl- or the alkyl side of the oxygen bearing carbon atom in the fatty acid chain. In this case short chain fatty acids, aldehydic, keto, and hydroxyl acids appear together with volatile compounds. Also the formation of cyclic and furan fatty acids was detected. As a reaction between fatty acids also dimeric and polymerised fatty acids can be observed. Taking into account the different amounts of these fatty acid degradation products the physiological relevance has to be discussed. Due to high concentrations of dimeric and polymerised molecules these substances can lower significantly the digestibility of fried foods, while oxidised fatty acid monomers are readily absorbed and raise concern about their effect on lipid metabolism. These two different effects of altered TAGs and fatty acids have to be considered separately.

Research advancements in palm oil nutrition

Abstract: Palm oil is the major oil produced, with annual world production in excess of 50 million tonnes. About 85% of global palm oil produced is used in food applications. Over the past three decades, research on nutritional benefits of palm oil have demonstrated the nutritional adequacy of palm oil and its products, and have resulted in transitions in the understanding these attributes. Numerous studies have demonstrated that palm oil was similar to unsaturated oils with regards to effects on blood lipids. Palm oil provides a healthy alternative to trans-fatty acid containing hydrogenated fats that have been demonstrated to have serious deleterious effects on health. The similar effects of palm oil on blood lipids, comparable to other vegetable oils could very well be due to the structure of the major triglycerides in palm oil, which has an unsaturated fatty acid in the stereospecific numbers (sn)-2 position of the glycerol backbone. In addition, palm oil is well endowed with a bouquet of phytonutrients beneficial to health, such as tocotrienols, carotenoids, and phytosterols. This review will provide an overview of studies that have established palm oil as a balanced and nutritious oil.

Physico‐chemical properties and fatty acid profile of seed oils from pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) extracted by cold pressing

Abstract: Pomegranate (Punica granatum L.) seeds are normally waste products from pomegranate fruit processing but they are a valuable source of certain pharmaceutical and nutraceutical compounds. This study was performed to determine and compare the physico-chemical properties of oils of pomegranate seed extracted by cold pressing from the variety Torshe Malas Iran (TMOI) and two commercial oils from Iran (COI) and Turkey (COT). Fatty acid analysis indicated that all the oil samples had a dominant fatty acid, punicic acid, with the other prominent fatty acids being linoleic and oleic acids. The thermal behavior of the three oils was determined using differential scanning calorimetry, which gave melting points of TMOI (−12.70°C), COI (1.87°C), and COT (2.25°C). TMOI was found to have the most favorable chemical quality attributes, including a low peroxide value (4.67 meq/kg), low free fatty acid content (0.65% as punicic acid), and high total phenolic content (10.44 mg GAE/g sample), followed by COT. Analysis of flavor compounds was conducted using fast gas chromatography-surface acoustic wave technology, which allowed detection of 13 distinct aromas among the three oils. Overall, the physico-chemical properties of the three oils were superior to those of pomegranate seed oils extracted using organic solvents reported previously. Practical application: Medical applications of pomegranate seed oil are gaining increasing attention, particularly due to the health benefits of punicic acid. Pomegranate seed oil is also highly suited to specific industrial applications, such as tanning. Despite its importance, little research has been conducted on the physico-chemical properties of the oil extracted by cold press compared to conventional extraction methods and super critical CO2 extraction. This study shows that superior quality pomegranate seed oil can be extracted simply and without using organic solvents. Extraction of the highly nutritious cold-pressed oil from pomegranate seeds could enable the generation of substantial revenue for pomegranate processing factories without associated environmental impacts.

Transcriptional regulation of fatty acid production in higher plants: Molecular bases and biotechnological outcomes

Abstract: Acyl lipids are essential constituents found in every plant cell, where they fulfill diverse biological functions. Requirements for acyl chains depend on the cell type considered and vary greatly, implying a tight regulation of de novo fatty acid production in the plastids so that supply fits demand. Data generated by extensive transcriptome analyses carried out in various plant species and the characterization of the WRINKLED1 transcription factor in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana have first established the importance of transcriptional regulation for modulating the rate of fatty acid production. The fatty acid biosynthetic pathway is indeed subjected to a system of global transcriptional control that coordinates the expression of most genes encoding enzymes of the pathway. Although much remains to be elucidated, the framework of the regulatory system controlling fatty acid biosynthesis in plants is coming into focus. Practical applications: Fatty acids constitute the most abundant form of reduced carbon chains available from nature and plant oils represent the main renewable resource of these fatty acids. Plant oils therefore represent a highly valuable agricultural commodity, the demand for which is increasing rapidly. They are primarily used for food and feed, but they are increasingly being utilized as renewable sources of industrial feedstock and fuel. Knowledge regarding the regulation of fatty production is extensively exploited in the frame of genetic engineering for oilseed crop improvement.

An alternative RP‐HPLC method for the separation and determination of tocopherol and tocotrienol homologues as butter authenticity markers: A comparative study between two European countries

Abstract: Eight tocochromanols (a, b, g ,a ndd homologues of tocopherol and tocotrienol) naturally occurring in foods were successfully separated within a 13‐min run in the RP‐HPLC mode. Analytes were separated on the Phenomenex Luna PFP column filled with the pentafluorophenyl stationary phase (3mm, 150mm � 4.6mm)usingthemobile phase containingmethanol:water(93:7v/v)withan elution flow rate of 1ml/min and column oven temperature of 40°C. The method was rapid, linear, accurate, and precise with detection limits in the range of 0.000184–0.000605mg, preventing analyte losses due direct dissolution in 2‐propanol. The developed RP‐HPLC method in comparison with the NP‐HPLC mode had a significantly higher sensitivity, speed, and repeatability, but primarily it protected against the loss of analytes andthusreducedtheriskofpossibleerrormeasurements.Itwasfoundthattocopherolcontentsinthetested butter samples amounted to2.00–16.92mg/100g for samples coming from Poland and 2.61–2.98mg/100g for samples from Latvia, respectively. The method is characterized by simplicity of implementation and it was successfully applied in the determination of tocochromanols in butter to verify product authenticity. Practical applications: To ensure consumers’ protection, food products should be subject to continuous quality and authenticity control. One way to determine butter authenticity is to analyze native tocochromanol contents. This paper describes a simple and fast method determine plant oils added to milk fat with the use of RP‐HPLC techniques.

Phytochemical contents and oxidative stability of oils from non‐traditional sources

Abstract: was evaluated by rancimat method. The fatty acid composition of lipids from apricot kernels was different from the other oils. The contribution of oleic acid in apricot oil amount 66.77%, while in the other oils ranged from 12.39% to 21.86%. The highest level of a‐linolenic acid was determined in wheat germ oil (7.58%). Concerning phytosterols, b‐sitosterol was major component in all oils extracted from non‐ traditional sources, with wheat germ oil being the richest in total phytosterol content. Wheat germ oil was very rich in campesterol and sitostanol. It was found that wheat germ, black cumin seed, tomato seed, and apricot kernel oils contained significant amount of citrostadienol. Concerning the vitamin E, it was found that black cumin seed oil contained highest amount of tocotrienols and gamma tocopherols, while, tomato seed oil contain highest amount of gamma‐tocotrienols. Wheat germ oil was unique in having a high content of alpha‐tocopherol. Apricot kernel and wheat germ oils showed the highest oxidative stability as shown from its induction period compared to the other investigated oils. It is recommended that these oils can be utilized as sources of value added products, natural antioxidants, edible, and healthy oils.

Micronutrient content of cold‐pressed, hot‐pressed, solvent extracted and RBD canola oil: Implications for nutrition and quality

Abstract: In this study the quality characteristics and content of healthy minor components of four crude canola oils as an effect of different oil extraction method (solvent extraction, hot pressing, and cold pressing) were studied. Cold-pressed canola oils had lower concentrations of FFA, PV, p-AV and chlorophylls than solvent-extracted, and hot-pressed canola oils. Oils obtained via the different extraction methods had different fatty acid profiles as well as dissimilar amounts of tocopherols, phytosterols, and polyphenols. The amount of total tocopherols in solvent-extracted canola oil was 493 mg/kg compared to 388 mg/kg for hot-pressed canola oil. The tocopherol content for two other cold-pressed and one other RBD canola oil was 366, 354, and 327 mg/kg, respectively. Solvent-extracted canola oil exhibited the highest free phytosterol content (178 mg/100 g), while RBD canola oil only had 129 mg/100 g of free phytosterols. While cold-pressed canola oil had the lowest amount of polyphenols, traditional refining resulted in almost complete removal of polyphenols from canola oil.

Influence of industrial physical refining on tocopherol, chlorophyll and beta‐carotene content in sunflower and rapeseed oil

Abstract: The main purpose of this article was to investigate the influence of individual processes in physical refining on tocopherol content in sunflower and rapeseed oils. During refining some chemical parameters, the oxidative stability of oils and some minor compounds such as chlorophyll and beta-carotene, were determined. Those analytical data with explained chemical backgrounds gave more qualitative overview of what happened to the same lot of oils being processed in a continuous operation. Some processes were compared with a laboratory oil refining. Crude rapeseed oil contained 656 mg/kg of total tocopherols, followed by high oleic sunflower with 373 mg/kg of tocopherols and classic sunflower oil with 332 mg/kg of tocopherols. The most serious refining processes were bleaching and physical deodorization process, the tocopherol losses being 14.9–17.4% and 20.2–27.1%, respectively. In the refined oils, chlorophylls and FFAs were almost completely removed and the oxidative stability increased 2–3 times. Vegetable oil refining process caused relatively great losses of minor compounds but this, in turn, prolonged the shelf life of edible oils. Practical applications: It was proved that refining of sunflower and rapeseed oils in the oil refinery improves their basic chemical parameters. The loss of tocopherols can be minimized by shortening the time and lowering the temperature during the final step of physical refining, but it has to remain within requirements on quality of refined edible oils. The refining processes of sunflower and rapeseed oils lead to 39.0–45.5 % loss of total tocopherol content. The most serious refining processes were bleaching and physical deodorization process, the tocopherol losses being 14.9–17.4 % and 20.2–27.1 %, respectively. Degumming process can caused 6.6–8.4 % decrease of tocopherols in sunflower and rapeseed oil. Most gentle process was winterization of sunflower oils which caused only 2.9–5.8 % tocopherols decrease.

Quality control of used deep‐frying oils

Abstract: Quality of deep-fried food is inseparably attached to the quality of the used deep-frying oil. Taste, flavor, shelf life, consumer acceptance, and safety of fried food essentially depend on frying oil quality. Evaluation of frying oil quality therefore is an important issue for both frying operators and official food control agencies. Organoleptic evaluation is an essential step in the monitoring of frying fat quality. Several official laboratory methods are available to support the sensory evaluation. Total polar materials (TPM) and polymer TAGs (PTG) are the most reliable parameters for this purpose. Recommended and widely accepted limits are 24% for TPM and 12% for PTG. When oxidative alterations strongly predominate over thermal alterations, sensory defects can appear before TPM and PTG reach recommended values. In that case additional parameters like anisidine value, carbonyl value, or epoxy fatty acids should be considered. A number of physical and chemical rapid methods are available. Despite the limited informative value and the possibility of error of rapid tests, they are essential for fryer operators, because they deliver information about fat quality in real-time. Most reliable for most applications are quick tests measuring TPM. A unique and powerful tool for the simultaneous detection of multiple parameters corresponding to thermal and oxidative alterations is near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), which will become more and more important in future.

Tiger nut oil (Cyperus esculentus L.): A review of its composition and physico‐chemical properties

Abstract: Despite its high nutritional value, tiger nut oil is hardly used in food industries compared to other vegetable oils such as olive and peanut oil. However, its benefits are increasingly being recognized, including its stability and similarity to olive oil in particular. This review discusses its composition, physico‐chemical properties and economic potential. Literature reveals that tiger nut oil shares a similar fatty acid profile with olive, avocado and hazelnut oil. Its low content of polyunsaturated fatty acid, tocopherol and phytosterol contributes to its high stability. When compared to soy bean oil, its phospholipids composition (3.1–5.4%) is higher. Its iodine and acid values reflect its quality at 76.60 and 0.03mg KOH/g oil, respectively. Roasted tiger nut oil was found to contain vanillin and to a lesser extent 2, 3‐dihydro‐3, 5‐dihydroxy‐6‐methyl‐4H‐pyran‐4‐one and 5‐ethylfurfural as key odorants contributing to the overall aroma of the oil. Its low viscosity makes it suitable for use in coating industry and as fuel. In‐depth studies on the oils’ constituents are on‐going but efficient and environmentally friendly extraction techniques are needed. Based on the available data, tiger nut oil has been established as an oil of good nutritional value which may be exploited to the great benefit of growers, processors and dealers of the tuber.

Fundamentals of the frying process

Abstract: Considerable interest has been developed over the years in optimizing the frying process. This approach has resulted in a better understanding of the process as a system: oil, food, fryer, and the operation in general. The frying-process is a complex system depending on the extent of chemical reactions like oxidation, polymerisation, and hydrolysis where the physical and chemical properties of the heated fat are altering. It is difficult to estimate the extent of influence of each factor and to keep the frying conditions at an optimum level. The practical and theoretical aspects of deep-frying such as oil-uptake, mechanism of heat and mass-transfer, and some analytical aspects to monitor the fat degradation are discussed. Practical applications: Deep-frying involves close contact between the oil used and the food to be fried. The used oil becomes part of the food and contributes to the flavor, appearance, texture, shelf life, and nutritional value of the final product. A better understanding of the frying process is needed to produce fried products in a more economical way with an optimum flavor and a better shelf-life.

Volatile compounds generated in corn oil stored at room temperature. Presence of toxic compounds

Abstract: Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) followed by GC/MS was employed to study the headspace composition of corn oil (maize oil) samples stored at room temperature in closed receptacles with limited amounts of air for different periods of time. Samples with a high oxidation level showed the presence of typical secondary volatile oxidation compounds such as alkanals, 2-alkenals, 2,4-alkadienals, acids, alcohols, ketones, alkylfurans, and lactones. Aldehydes were the most numerous group; however, acids, which were fewer in number, showed the highest abundances. The high number of lactones detected is also noteworthy. In agreement with corn oil composition, those volatiles derived from linoleic acyl groups appeared in the highest abundances. The detection of two groups of toxic compounds, whose rise in concentration corresponded with the oxidation level of the samples, was remarkable. There were, on the one hand, alkylbenzenes and mono- and poly-cyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) of low molecular weight, such as toluene, naphthalene, and fluorene. On the other hand, there were oxygenated α,β-unsaturated aldehydes like 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal, 4-oxo-2-nonenal, and 4,5-epoxy-2-decenal brought about by the oxidation of omega-6 polyunsaturated acyl groups (linoleic), and, in much lower proportions, 4-hydroxy-2-hexenal and 4,5-epoxy-2-heptenal coming from omega-3 ones (linolenic). Practical applications: The identification and quantification of such a great number of volatile compounds coming from corn oil can be very helpful for other researchers who study the degradation of this vegetable oil or other kinds with similar proportions of acyl groups.

Vacuum frying versus conventional frying – An overview*

Abstract: Deep-fat frying of foods usually is carried out under atmospheric conditions at temperatures near 190°C. The problem that arises most often is excessive darkening or scorching of the product, even before the product is completely cooked. In addition, some of the oil decomposition products have been implicated in producing adverse health effects when fried oils degraded with continued use. Vacuum frying is a process that is carried out under pressures well below atmospheric levels (below 6.65 kPa). Vacuum-fried products have higher retention of nutritional quality (phytochemicals), color is enhanced (less oxidation), and oil degradation is reduced compared to atmospheric frying. However, a de-oiling mechanism is necessary to remove the excessive oil absorption at the surface of the product. The main objectives of this paper are to review the literature on vacuum frying specifically on the effect of vacuum frying operating conditions such as pressurization and de-oiling mechanisms on the final product oil content. Product quality attributes as affected by atmospheric and vacuum pressures and fundamental modeling of the process are also discussed in this article.

Comparative study of DHA‐enriched phospholipids and EPA‐enriched phospholipids on metabolic disorders in diet‐induced‐obese C57BL/6J mice

Abstract: Recent reports have shown that n-3 PUFA-enriched phospholipids have various beneficial effects. The proportion of DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) in the phospholipids might affect their biological functions. In the present study, marine DHA-enriched phospholipids (DHA-PL) and EPA-enriched phospholipids (EPA-PL) were administered to high fat (HF) diet-induced obese C57BL/6J mice for 8 weeks to compare their effects on obesity-related metabolic disorders. DHA-PL and EPA-PL significantly decreased epididymal and perirenal adipose tissue weights, reduced blood pressures and lowered serum and hepatic triacylglycerol levels in HF diet-induced obese mice. Serum insulin, MCP-1 and IL-6 levels were also efficiently reduced by treatment with DHA-PL and EPA-PL. The anti-obesity and lipid-lowering effects of EPA-PL were superior to DHA-PL, while DHA-PL exhibited better anti-hypertension effects than EPA-PL. The effects of DHA-PL and EPA-PL on glucose intolerance and inflammation were basically equivalent. DHA-PL and EPA-PL up-regulated genes involved in insulin-sensitizing actions in the adipose tissue and suppressed hepatic SREBP-1c mediated lipogenesis. EPA-PL also significantly activated PPARα mediated fatty acid β-oxidation in the liver. These results indicate that DHA-PL and EPA-PL could efficaciously alleviate obesity-related metabolic disorders but the ameliorative degree and regulatory mechanisms are not identical. Practical applications: This investigation would be useful in the selective development of functional foods containing DHA-PL or EPA-PL contributing to the prevention and treatment of chronic metabolic disease in humans. The study also showed the chemical compositions of phospholipids fractions of squid (Sthenoteuthis oualaniensis) egg and sea cucumber (Cucumaria frondosa) that may be useful for further studies.

Natural antioxidants as stabilizers of frying oils

Abstract: Frying is a very complex process and the applied conditions often overwhelm most endogenous and added antioxidants. Synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), and tert-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) are often added to processed oils to retard oxidative degradation during storage and frying; however, beside their poor performance under frying conditions, consumers' acceptance of synthetic antioxidants remains negative due to their perceived detrimental effect on human health. Consequently, there is a growing interest in the search for effective natural antioxidants for frying applications, notably, from phenolic components of common spices and herbs. The present study provides an overview of the literature on natural antioxidants, sources, and their performance under frying conditions. Practical applications: Sources and performance of natural antioxidants during frying were reviewed. Despite abundance of data on the radical scavenging activity and antioxidant potency of some natural antioxidants under storage conditions, there is still a dearth of information on their activity during frying. This study revealed a number of under-exploited sources of natural antioxidants that could be used to improve the stability of frying oils.

Performance of palm olein and modified rapeseed, sunflower, and soybean oils in intermittent deep‐frying

Abstract: The frying performance of rapeseed, soybean, and sunflower oils with modified fatty acid composition, and palm olein (PALMO) was compared during a rotational frying operation. The frying was conducted at 185 ± 5°C for 6 days where French fries, battered chicken, and fish sticks were fried in succession. At the end of the frying period, high-oleic rapeseed and sunflower oils exhibited a significantly higher frying stability than PALMO and other modified oils, based on total polar components (TPC), polymers, and non-volatile carbonyl compounds formation (anisidine value (AV)). The rate of TPC formation was 2.9, 2.9, 3.2, 3.2, and 3.4% per frying day for high-oleic low-linolenic rapeseed (HOLLRAP), high-oleic sunflower (HOSUN), mid-oleic sunflower (MOSUN), low-linolenic soybean (LLSOY), and PALMO, respectively. Although the contents of free fatty acids (FFA) in the used oils were significantly below the regulatory discard level, in PALMO formation of these compounds was 1.7 times higher compared to the modified oils. Color component formation and tocopherol degradation were also observed to be the highest in palm olein. A 15-member consumer panel awarded HOLLRAP and HOSUN the highest overall sensory acceptance scores, while for LLSOY and PALMO the lowest. Practical applications: Although several frying oils are available in today's market, only a few of them can deliver satisfactory performance during extended frying operation. Thus, the search for the ideal frying oils/fats is an ongoing task. The present study assessed frying performance in the quest for the appropriate frying oils/fats in order to deliver healthy fried products with optimized nutritional qualities.

Interactive effects of salinity, high light, and nitrogen starvation on fatty acid and carotenoid profiles in Nannochloropsis oceanica CCALA 804

Abstract: Flexible responses of lipid metabolism to changes in cultivation conditions characteristic of oleaginous microalgae of the genus Nannochloropsis render them a promising source of triacylglycerols for biodiesel (under nutrient-deprivation and high-light stress) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; C20:5, n-3) (under nutrient sufficient conditions). We investigated the responses of fatty acid and pigment profile in the euryhaline Nannochloropsis oceanica CCALA 804 to the combined stresses of high light (HL), salinity (0, 27, and 40 g/L NaCl) and nitrogen deprivation. The growth in nitrogen-replete medium under HL triggered a rapid acclimation of the microalgae to the HL stress in a salinity-dependent manner associated with a moderate decrease of EPA proportion of total FA. Nitrogen starvation (i) slowed the biomass accumulation, (ii) enhanced the production of reserve lipids at the expense of chloroplast lipids, and (iii) triggered photoprotective responses of pigment apparatus in N. oceanica. Regardless of cultivation conditions, the stress-induced changes in pigments and fatty acid profile were highly coordinated. Nitrogen-starvation promoted total FA accumulation on the background of a marked decline in EPA and light-harvesting Car as well as up-regulation of violaxanthin cycle with concomitant rise in non-photochemical quenching. Zero-NaCl conditions appeared to be beneficial for biomass and EPA accumulation and alleviated, especially under nitrogen starvation, the effects of salinity stresses (the decline in biomass accumulation rate, content of light-harvesting carotenoids and EPA, and photosynthetic efficiency). Strategies of N. oceanica acclimation to stresses of different nature and their possible implications for the biotechnology of this species are discussed.

Influence of ingredients that reduce oil absorption during immersion frying of battered and breaded foods

Abstract: Many popular foods are prepared by battering and breading a substrate followed by deep-fat frying, also known as immersion frying. However, these foods are high in calories and fat. This has led to research on the reduction of fat absorption during immersion frying. This paper focuses on the use of functional ingredients, usually proteins or non-protein hydrocolloids, which can be incorporated into the batter and/or breading, or applied as a post-breading dip to retard oil absorption. Protein ingredients from both animal and plant sources have been applied as films or in aqueous solutions to battered and breaded foods. Non-protein hydrocolloids such as cellulose derivatives, gums, calcium reactive pectins, and other plant-based flours have also been utilized. Due to the applied nature of the process and the potential economic impact, many of the ingredients and strategies presented here have been culled from the patent literature. This paper also describes three theories of oil absorption into fried foods; the water-replacement mechanism, the cooling-phase effect, and the surfactant theory, and reviews research that reports the impact of oil absorption on the nutritional and textural properties of the battered and breaded foods.

Raman spectroscopy study of edible oils and determination of the oxidative stability at frying temperatures

Abstract: Samples of edible oils of different degrees of unsaturation were studied by Raman spectroscopy. We demonstrate the potential of this technique for discriminating these oils. In addition, the Raman spectra for the macadamia, pecan, and Brazil nut oils are for the first time reported here. The fatty acid profile of each type of oil was established by GC. The analytical results obtained from the spectra were highly correlated with those provided by GC as regards the contents in monounsaturated and PUFA of each oil type. Spectra were examined separately in the wavenumber zones 2800–3100 and 800–1800 cm−1, which were those exhibiting the greater differences between oils. Also, as shown in this work, Raman spectroscopy is an effective tool for assessing oxidation in various grades of olive oils. Based on the results, extra virgin olive oil efficiently resists oxidation in the short term by virtue of its increased antioxidant contents. Practical applications: In this paper we show the usefulness of Raman spectroscopy to distinguish between edible oils. Similarly, the technique also allows us to discriminate between different heat-treated olive oils. At the industrial level Raman spectroscopy can be a useful tool to detect adulteration related to the oxidation of fat. Its ease of use and the absence of sample handling make it very effective for use in production systems on-line. Raman spectroscopy allows to distinguish oils with different unsaturation level and also allows us to discriminate between different heat-treated oils.

Phospholipids in pulmonary drug delivery

Abstract: Pulmonary delivery is becoming the standard route of administration for treating respiratory disorders such as asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. It is also gaining interest for non-invasive systemic delivery of peptides and proteins. A limited number of excipients is approved or authorized for the pulmonary tract. This restricts the commercial potential of some formulations. Phospholipids and more particularly 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC) are the main components of lung surfactant and are recognized as generally recognized as safe (GRAS) excipients for pulmonary drug delivery by the Food and Drug Administration. Moreover, phospholipids could modulate the physicochemical properties of drug delivery systems and therefore the drug release and/or dissolution. They can potentially modulate the drug pharmacokinetic by enhancing the drug permeability through the lung epithelium using palmitoyl-based phospholipids, and/or by reducing recognition of the drug delivery systems by the alveolar macrophages by including DPPC or polyethyleneglycol (PEG) at their surface. Therefore, this review focuses on the formulations containing phospholipids or PEGylated phospholipids, such as micelles, liposomes, lipid micro-/nanoparticles, large porous particles, solid dispersions, and microparticle suspensions. Drug delivery systems composed mainly or secondarily by phospholipids could be aerosolized by an appropriate device (nebulizer for aqueous-based formulations, pressurized metered dose inhalers for propellant or aqueous-based formulations or dry powder inhaler for powder-based formulations) to be deposited in the lungs following their aerodynamic diameter. Phospholipids included in the drug delivery systems could modulate aerodynamic performances and drug pharmacokinetic.

Towards a better understanding of how to improve lipase‐catalyzed reactions using deep eutectic solvents based on choline chloride

Abstract: The new generation of designer solvents, such as deep eutectic solvents (DES), are generally claimed to be renewable and environmentally friendly. Nevertheless, this classification depends entirely on the nature of the selected components. The DES derived from choline chloride (ChCl) combined with a safe hydrogen?bond donor, such as urea, seemed ideal for the design of eco?friendly processes. In mixtures with water, it has been successfully used for lipase?catalyzed reactions of polar substrates. However, no studies have yet examined the role of the different components involved in these mixtures (ChCl, urea, and water) in the medium's functional properties, especially in the biocatalysis field where the enzymes are very sensitive to the environment. By analyzing the water activity (aw) and water content of the solvent, this paper reveals two different thermodynamic areas controlled by the strong association between ChCl and water. In addition, by varying the urea concentration, we show that urea has a denaturing effect on the enzyme and a positive effect on the selectivity of the reaction. Overall, this study made it possible to optimize the lipase?catalyzed alcoholysis reactions, with the synthesis of high yields of a wide range of lipophilic derivative compounds of phenolic acids. (Resume d'auteur)

Fatty acid composition, lipid oxidation, and fishy odour development in seabass (Lates calcarifer) skin during iced storage

Abstract: Changes in fatty acid profile, lipid hydrolysis and oxidation, development of fishy odour and volatile compounds in seabass (Lates calcarifer) skin during 18 days of iced storage were investigated Peroxide value (PV) increased up to Day 6 and subsequently decreased up to 18 days (p < 005) The continuous increases in thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) values, free fatty acid (FFA) content and lipoxygenase (LOX) activity were noticeable with increasing storage time (p < 005) Formation of FFA and hydroperoxide was confirmed by the changes in amplitude of peak at 3600–3200/cm and 1711/cm in Fourier transform IR spectra, respectively With increasing storage time, the increase in fishy odour intensity was observed along with the formation of volatiles Hexanal and nonanal constituted as the dominant volatile aldehydes in skin stored in ice for an extended time Therefore, the delay of skin processing must be avoided to prevent the formation of undesirable fishy odour in skin and its products Practical applications: Seabass skin is one of the potential raw materials for production of collagen, gelatin or other derived products Iced storage of seabass skin affected fatty acid composition, lipid hydrolysis and oxidation, development of fishy odour and volatile compounds Therefore, skin from fresh fish should be used and the delay of further processing should be avoided to prevent undesirable fishy odour in skin and products made therefrom During iced storage, seabass skin underwent lipid oxidation with the coincidental release or activation of LOX Development of fishy odour took place along with the formation of volatile compounds

Changes in the content of canolol and total phenolics, oxidative stability of rapeseed oil during accelerated storage

Abstract: An oil sample was prepared by cold-pressing from untreated (UTRO) and microwave-treated (MWRO) rapeseed, and tertiary butyl-hydroquinone (TBHQ) was added to another oil from untreated rapeseed. Microwave pretreatment significantly increased the total phenolics and canolol contents, as well as the initial acid value (AV), peroxide value (PV), and p-anisidine value (pAV) of oil (p UTRO + TBHQ > MWRO. During storage, significant linear correlations (p<0.001) were found between the PV, pAV, and canolol content (PV vs. Canolol = −0.960 to −0.890; pAV vs. Canolol = −0.889 to −0.968), and the DPPH activity was also linearly and significantly correlated with the content of total phenolics and canolol in oils. (DPPH vs. Tatal phenolics = 0.910–0.945; DPPH vs. Canolol = 0.941–0.962; p<0.001). When the autoxidation test was completed (on the 10th wk), it was found that the contents of canolol and total phenolics in MWRO were the highest, followed by UTRO + TBHQ, and UTRO. These results indicate that the MWRO exhibited superior oxidative stability. Practical application: Canolol, also known as vinylsyringol, is a phenolic compound that has been identified as a decarboxylation product of sinapic acid, and this type of compounds is known for scavenging free radicals. In this study, we evaluated the changes occurring during storage in the contents of canolol and the total phenolics, oxidative stability, and antioxidant capacity of rapeseed oil and found good correlation among the canolol content, oxidative stability, and antioxidant capacity. Therefore, we can use canolol as a native antioxidant for rapeseed oil production in the future. Canolol in rapeseed and rapeseed oil that is formed by thermal decarboxylation of sinapic acid under microwave irradiation. Canolol formation has been shown to improve the oxidative stability of oil from microtreated rapeseed. The results showed a very good correlation between the level of primary oxidative products (peroxide values), secondary oxidative products (p-anisidine values) and the contents of canolol in the rapeseed oil during storage. So, canolol has potential applications in oil storage.

Coumarin 6 as a fluorescent model drug: How to identify properties of lipid colloidal drug delivery systems via fluorescence spectroscopy?

Abstract: In the development of colloidal lipid drug delivery systems (DDS), the localization of the drug within the DDS, the protective potential of the DDS as well as the compatibility of the drug with the excipients are of special interest. In this study, Coumarin 6 (C6), a fluorescent dye frequently used to facilitate the traceability of DDS in vitro, is demonstrated as a tool to gain insight into the aforementioned properties by fluorescence spectroscopy. Both ways of loading C6 to solid colloidal DDS (pre-loading to the lipid matrix or post-loading to the ready DDS after its processing) led to a localization of C6 in the interfacial layer between solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) and aqueous medium. In the case of pre-loading, C6 is homogenously distributed in emulsion droplets and expelled from the lipid matrix due to crystallization. Nanoemulsions distributed C6 in the liquid lipid matrix itself and cause a hypsochromic shift of fluorescence spectra. Larger surface areas of emulsion droplets due to smaller droplet sizes displayed more interaction of C6 with the aqueous phase as a bathochromic shoulder in fluorescence spectra. Measured fluorescence intensity was linearly dependent on light scattering of colloidal DDS of the same excipients. A simple method to evaluate the protective properties of DDS was presented and displayed that (i) nanoemulsions provide more protection compared with SLN and (ii) higher phospholipid concentration improve the protection within SLN. Practical applications: In the development of colloidal DDS, it is important to identify the localization and distribution of a (model) drug in compartments within the disperse system. The simple approach by fluorescence spectroscopy presented in this study supplies information about the localization of drug substances with properties comparable with the fluorescent probe used. The results assist formulation development as a quick screening tool to elucidate (i) the localization of the probe, (ii) the microenvironment of the probe (e.g., differentiation of the physical state of the disperse phase), and (iii) the protection of the probe against damaging agents from the aqueous phase. The fluorescent dye Coumarin 6 was applied as model drug in colloidal lipid drug delivery systems. Fluorescence spectroscopy proved able to identify the localization of the model compound, the physical state of the dispersed phase, and the protective potential of the DDS, especially dependent on phospholipid concentration.

Discriminating eggs from different poultry species by fatty acids and volatiles profiling: Comparison of SPME‐GC/MS, electronic nose, and principal component analysis method

Abstract: Fatty acid profiles and volatile composition in the yolks of conventional eggs from seven different species (duck, free-range chicken, silky chicken, quail, pigeon, goose, and chicken) were compared using GC–MS and electronic nose (E-nose). The results showed that there were significant differences among the fatty acid profiles of the seven avian eggs. Goose eggs contained the highest contents of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids but the lowest content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and the differences were significant (p<0.05). The PUFA proportion was the highest in the free-range chicken eggs of all the tested avian eggs. The ω-3 PUFA content and the ω-6/ω-3 ratio were significantly (p<0.05) higher in the yolks of goose and silky chicken. The volatile compositions of egg yolks are esters, alcohols, alkenes, and nitrogenous compounds, and the major compounds that contributed to discrimination of different species of eggs were ethyl acetate, pathalic acid butyl isohexyl ester, O-methylisourea hydrogen sulfate, 1-butanol, and N-isopropylbenzamide. In addition, seven different species of eggs were distinguished from each other through principal component analysis of E-nose data, suggesting that the E-nose may be a potential technology for discriminating different species of eggs. Practical applications: The results showed that the major volatile components could be used as chemical markers to distinguish different species of eggs by the chemometric method. The results obtained from the electronic nose analysis agreed well with the GC–MS results, suggesting the potential application of the E-nose technique in the market quality control and the detection of counterfeit eggs. Twenty-two fatty acids were detected and significant differences were found in the fatty acid proportions of different poultry eggs. A total of 41 volatiles were identified by GC–MS, and E-nose can successfully discrimination different species of eggs.