Showing papers in "European Journal of Psychology of Education in 1989"
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors describe the results of a study using phenomenographic research techniques, which focusses on student learning in a first year university physics course, using interviews with sixteen volunteer students from the course, and show that only those students who actively sought to change their conceptions of the subject matter did so.
Abstract: Recent research on student learning in higher education has increasingly focussed on experiential aspects of how students approach their studies and what they learn from their studies. In this paper we describe the results of a study using phenomenographic research techniques, which focusses on student learning in a first year university physics course. The study, using interviews with sixteen volunteer students from the course, shows that only those students who actively sought to change their conceptions of the subject matter did so, while those who sought only to reproduce that subject matter did not.
196 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the contextual character of students' conceptions of cases of psysical motion was investigated in an interview with students following the mechanical engineering line of study at Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, Sweden.
Abstract: The question addressed in the present article concerns the contextual character of students’ conceptions of cases of psysical motion. An interview investigation with students following the mechanical engineering line of study at Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, Sweden was carried out during the students’ first year of study, before and after their first course in Mechanics. In the interviews, the students were verbally presented with eight cases of physical motion, four before and four after the course. The analysis of the conceptualization of physical motion points clearly to the very restricted contextual character of the conceptions of the cases. In previous research, the tradition of describing thinking and knowledge in terms of cognitive structures, shemas, models and so on, is very dominant. In relation to our results, one problem with the focus on cognitive structures is the assumptions made about generality across case or instances. Also, the students’ starting-point for their reasoning about the cases is not in any conceptual framework but in the specific cases. The conceptualizations are related to the students’ previous experiences rather than to any clearly delimited and structured conceptual framework.
61 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors explored the importance of peer groups, how belonging to different types of groups affects the actual perception of oneself, the peer group and other groups, and the perception of difficulty in coping with developmental tasks.
Abstract: This study aims to exploring the importance of peer groups, how belonging to different types of groups affects the actual perception of oneself, the peer group and other groups, and the perception of difficulty in coping with developmental tasks. 600 adolescents from Bologna, Italy filled out a questionnaire, consisting of three parts. The results show that peer groups are important in adolescence lifes. Overall, 90% of the subjects were members of a peer group; most often they belonged to informal or quasi-informal groups. A smaller percentage belonged to formal groups, like to sport or religious groups. The scopes to meet the groups were most often for amusement and also for talking about one’s personal problems. Surprisingly, the differences of descriptions of oneself and the own group, oneself and the self-defined outgroup, oneself and drug abusers, did not differ considerably among informal and formal groups. Also informal and formal groups described the ingroups equally favorably and outgroups equally unfavorably. Moreover the results show that informal and formal groups did not differ in the perception of difficulty in coping with developmental tasks. These results indicate that the type of groups is not a crucial variable in explaining differences in evolution of the self-system in adolescents.
35 citations
TL;DR: The results show that Bambara and Bakongo mothers have clear cut idea of development and relevant educational practices that rely upon traditional and empirical knowledge about the infant.
Abstract: Cultures differ according to the type of competences adults encourage in infants, the age at which these competences should be acquired and the level of expertise that should be reached (Hess & al., 1980). Consequently, three main criteria are involved in the shaping of the infant’s environment: the age at which some particular behavior are expected, the presume most appropriate time to initiate various activities with the infant, and the beliefs in the possibility of influencing some aspects of development. To discuss this problem we worked on naive conception of development assessed through semi-structured interviews and focussed questionnaires. Data were collected in 3 cultures: French, Bambara (Mali) and Bakongo (Kongo-Brazzaville). The results show that Bambara and Bakongo mothers have clear cut idea of development and relevant educational practices that rely upon traditional and empirical knowledge about the infant. French mothers are greatly influenced by medical and psychological modern knowledge.
33 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, cross-cultural studies on parental behaviour during early social interaction suggest that structural and universal features should be differentiated from culturally specific ones, and no direct relations can be assumed to exist between specific forms of child rearing and development of skills in the child.
Abstract: Data from cross-cultural studies on parental behaviour during early social interaction suggest that structural and universal features should be differentiated from culturally specific ones. No direct relations can be assumed to exist between specific forms of child rearing and development of skills in the child. However child rearing practices can have long term effects and affect social behaviours.
31 citations
TL;DR: The risk concept, adapted from pediatrics and psychiatrics, was introduced with the expectation of identifying those subgroups of infants that are of increased risk of later behavioural or developmental maladaptation.
Abstract: Recent psychological research on infants and newborns led to discoveries of early competencies in young infants hitherto unbelieved by most scientists and difficult to account for in traditional models of child development. On the other hand, accumulated empirical longitudinal evidence challenged long-held preconceptions of the enduring impacts of early experience on later development. The risk concept, adapted from pediatrics and psychiatrics, was introduced with the expectation of identifying those subgroups of infants that are of increased risk of later behavioural or developmental maladaptation. The risk concept, however, turned out to be imprecise, having too many different meanings, being too abstract, and applicable only to populations or groups, not to individuals. Combinations of the risk concept with recently developed more sophisticated models of early development, such as transactive and systemic models of development, include such concepts as vulnerability/resilience as stable personality characteristics, protection or risk as setting characteristics, and coping in the face of actual stress as situational process variables. Implications for prevention, intervention and early education are discussed with respect to some selected groups of infants considered at-risk.
28 citations
TL;DR: The human infant has been reportayed in recent infancy research in relation to genetic vs. environmental determinants of development, significance of early integrative processes, didactic interventions (discovered in intuitive forms of parenting), and the role of preverbal parent-infant communication.
Abstract: The human infant has been reportayed in recent infancy research in relation to genetic vs. environmental determinants of development, significance of early integrative processes, didactic interventions (discovered in intuitive forms of parenting), and the role of preverbal parent-infant communication. The new interpretation of early didactic supports to social integration and speech acquisition may interest educational psychologists in particular. It explains the seeming contradiction between early learning and infantile amnesia, and reveals a parental preadaptedness which has evolved to mach both the needs and the constraints of infants in mastering the most significant means of human adaptation — speech. It seems plausible that in addition to the evolution of an advantageous vocal tract and necessary brain circuits for perception and production of vocal symbols, speech evolution has also been influenced by coevolution of supportive tendencies in social environment. Moreover, didactical features of intuitive interventions suggest that rational academic didactics may have deep biological roots in the evolution of human prosocial tendencies.
27 citations
TL;DR: For twins' parents, the process of building up each child's individuality is more complex than for singleton's parents as mentioned in this paper, and the dyadic interaction becomes a triadic situation and the mother has to face the problem of distinguishing one twin from the other without comparing them.
Abstract: For twins’ parents, the process of building up each child’s individuality is more complex than for singleton’s parents. The dyadic interaction becomes a triadic situation and the mother has to face the problem of distinguishing one twin from the other without comparing them. The analysis of mother’s twin care patterns provides highly relevant information on the processes promoting twins’ individualization and maternal adjustment to the triadic situation. An empirical study illustrates this point of view. It surveys forty parents of twins on their attitudes towards twin rearing and observes parental behaviour in the home to assess consistency between statements of actual practices. Observation and correspondence analysis show that: I) Some types of child care are more conductive to implementing differentiation strategies than others (dress and choice of toys in contrast to bedtime and meals); 2) mothers of twins who are explicit about child rearing practices are generally coherent about putting them into practice; mothers with less explicit views are less inclined to try to individualize their twins; 3) SES and degree of physical resemblance between twins both affect the type of differentiation strategies.
19 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, a broader view on the subject of research-oriented learning is given, both as part of students' abilities and as a special learning style, by means of a scale developed within an international longitudinal study on student socialisation.
Abstract: The demand of research-oriented learning in higher education which was raised in various European countries at the end of the 1960s focused above all on institutional feasibilities. In this article a broader view on the subject is given. Research-oriented learning is examined both as part of students’ abilities and as a special learning style. The empirical data were gathered by means of a scale developed within an international longitudinal study on student socialisation. The findings show effects of selection as well as of socialisation. They indicate heterogeneity between main fields at the beginning of study and continuous development, throughout the course of time spent attending university. This trend is similar for four of the five countries studied — Austria, Germany, the Netherlands and Poland. The fifth country Yugoslavia proved to be an exception. But in all five countries the level reached by students remains unsatisfactory in view of the university’s objectives. The factors determining the development of a research-oriented learning style, in addition to the field of study, are motivation and gender. Throughout their studies women in all countries remain at a lower average level. This in particular, would have to be considered in a renewed discussion of the topic.
18 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors propose a schema textuel prototypique argumentatif, which enables children to produce textes contreargumentatifs coherently, i.e., they are able to respond to arguments with a response argumentative.
Abstract: L’objectif de cette recherche est de determiner dans quelle mesure des eleves de 8 a 12–13 ans sont capables de rediger des textes contreargumentatifs coherents. On a demande a 116 enfants et a 26 adultes quasi experts d’ecrire un texte commencant et se terminant par 2 enonces imposes et argumentativement anti-orientes. Dans cette situation metalangagiere particuliere, les eleves de 8–10 ans hesitent quant au type de texte (argumentatif ou non) a produire. Ceux de 10–11 ans savent que la situation appelle une reponse argumentative sans pour autant etre capables de contre-argumenter. A partir de 11–12 ans et chez les adultes les textes sont le plus souvent contre-argumentatifs. On propose d’expliquer cette evolution par la maitrise progressive d’un possible schema textuel prototypique argumentatif, qui permettrait aux eleves de comprendre les 2 enonces imposes comme les nœuds a dilater d’un texte argumentatif complexe et, dans le meme temps, de produire ce texte. Cette hypothese explicative est apparemment soutenue par les effets enregistres sur les performances de 40 enfants de 8 a 12–13 ans soumis a des interventions didactiques qui visaient precisement a les sensibiliser aux proprietes du texte argumentatif.
17 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors propose to meettre en evidence le benefice cognitif personnel qu’un tuteur du second niveau primaire (CE1) peut retirer de l’aide qu'il apporte a un enfant du premier Niveau (CP) ayant a resoudre des tâches de transformations spatiales necessitant des reperages topographiques.
Abstract: Cette recherche se propose de mettre en evidence le benefice cognitif personnel qu’un tuteur du second niveau primaire (CE1) peut retirer de l’aide qu’il apporte a un enfant du premier niveau (CP) ayant a resoudre des tâches de transformations spatiales necessitant des reperages topographiques. 36 enfants (12 eleves de 6–7 ans de CP et 24 eleves de 7–8 ans de CE1) ont ete repartis comme suit: 12 eleves de CE1 ont travaille individuellement, tandis que 12 dyades, chacune composee d’un enfanttuteur de CE1 et d’un enfant-aide de CP, ont forme le groupe experimental. Dans la modalite dyadique le tuteur est la pour aider l’autre a mieux reussir les exercices sans agir sur le materiel, sans faire a la place de l’autre et sans dicter a son camarade les actions a executer. Les resultats obtenus mettent en evidence des progres significatifs chez les sujets mis en position de tuteurs par rapport aux sujets ayant fonctionne individuellement. Divers indices concernant les manieres de faire des tuteurs nous amenent a qualifier d’effet-tuteur les progres constates et a les considerer comme la consequence d’une mise en situation ou un sujet intervenant aupres d’un autre (niveau sociocognitif) afin de lui expliquer comment faire (niveau metacognitif) est amene a regarder differemment la tâche proposee (niveau cognitif).
TL;DR: In this article, it is suggested that the concept of the environment should expand beyond the family and that professionals should consider their own role in terms of the social ecology of the family.
Abstract: The early education of infants with Down syndrome has been strongly influenced by studies highlighting the importance of the environment. These studies encouraged the belief that intelligence is not fixed and that early experience is critical to the course of development. Since the origins of a decline in IQ for Down syndrome had been traced to early infancy, it was hoped that early intervention programs might halt or even reverse this decline. The de-institutionalization movement converged with these studies to emphasize the home as a teaching environment and to view the mother as a teacher. It is suggested that the concept of the environment should expand beyond the family and that professionals should consider their own role in terms of the social ecology of the family. The programs need also to address the specific arousal needs of the infant with Down syndrome and to include motivational aspects in addition to cognitive measures when evaluating the effects of infant education.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors report on parts of an empirical longitudinal study on the students of business administration and ask for the student's conceptions about the most prominent contemporary economic problem and the cause of famine in the underdeveloped countries.
Abstract: The article reports on parts of an empirical longitudinal study. Students of engineering, business administration, medicine and psychology have been interviewed at the beginning and at the end of their education. The focus in the present article is on the students of business administration. Two of the questions in the interview asked for the student’s conceptions about the most prominent contemporary economic problem and the cause of famine in the underdeveloped countries.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors examined the sensitivity of parent-infant interaction in terms of two important aspects: the social and the didactic, and stressed the influence of a didactic "matching" on overall parent infant interaction quality, and especially on the quality of attachment.
Abstract: In the context of the transactional view on development, important changes in the second year of life are highlighted which demand parental adaptations in caregiving practice. The discontinuous growth of enriched cognitive functions in the toddler, as exemplified by Piagetian theory on development of intentionality and symbolic thinking and by recent findings about the emergence of self-awareness and mastery-motivation, meshes with changes in caregiving dimensions. The caregiver, seen as a catalyst for the development of cognitive and social competence must adjust himself to the developmental tasks the infant is coping with. The concept of sensitivity is examined in terms of two important aspects: the social and the didactic. From a Vygotskian standpoint, didactic strategies are very important for cognitive competence. Parents have to facilitate self-initiated learning and to adjust to the infant’s increasing cognitive functions. The influence of a didactic «matching» on overall parent-infant interaction quality, and especially on the quality of attachment, is stressed.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors present a theory on student learning in higher education based on Heider's ''naive analysis of action'' and the concepts of Pask and Ausubel.
Abstract: Three topics have been mutually integrated to produce the outline of a theory on student learning in higher education. (1) Experiences of first year students, as reported in Likert-type questionnaires on study behaviour and strategies, perceptions of examination requirements, evaluation of lecturing behaviours were summarized factor analytically within a framework of nine dimensions which seems to correspond to eight essential concepts identified in Heider’s «naive analysis of action». (2) Differences between first and fifth year students in the expectations they had with respect to the behaviours of their lecturers during the academic year, their examiners, and their dissertation supervisors suggest a quite systematic development during their time at university. (3) Concepts of Pask and Ausubel are integrated within a systematic description of the operations involved in the process of studying which lead to studying being defined as the goal-directed development of intelligence. This as yet rudimentary theory was found to provide an adequate explanation of the observations made in this study.
TL;DR: In this paper, a control system theory approach is used to understand the new types of learning and to bring order in many new infant developments in various functional domains, such as education during infancy.
Abstract: Human infancy is the mammalian extreme of an evolutionary trend towards a long, drawn-out life history. An extreme form of parental care and investment co-evolved. This is a drain on the mother’s resources and, consequently, a conflict results between the interests of the mother and the infant. It is in the interest of the mother to reduce her care as soon as possible. This is not done all at once, but in steps. The timing of these steps is dictated by the highly canalized infant development. Every time a new type of learning (preadapted responsiveness to certain learning opportunities) emerges in the infant, the mother withholds a related type of privilege/care. Consequently, mother-infant conflict results, until the infant gives in and reaches a new level of independence. Mother’s behaviour in a conflict period is of paramount importance: on the one hand it is mother’s role to sense the infant’s new educability and to (force) teach it how to use the newly emerged abilities it might not, or not fully, have used otherwise. On the other hand, mother-infant conflict may escalate and become pathogenic. Mother is bound to stay within limits dictated by the canalized abilities and interests of the infant. A deepened knowledge of the new types of learning is helpful in education during infancy. Control Systems Theory (CST) is useful in understanding the new types of learning and in bringing order in many new infant developments in various functional domains.
TL;DR: In this article, two recent developmental theories are described that may fill this need, the first a general developmental theory, the dynamic systems approach, and the other a more educational perspective of development elaborated by Valsiner from the work of Vygotsky.
Abstract: Preterm infants are at risk for developmental deviances, both in the motor and the social realms. The need for interventions in preterms has been long recognized, resulting in various approaches. The most telling criticism of these intervention studies is the lack of theoretical models, which could provide guidance in the what, when, where and how of intervention. Two recent developmental theories are described that may fill this need, the first a general developmental theory, the dynamic systems approach, and the other a more educational perspective of development elaborated by Valsiner from the work of Vygotsky. These theories can be integrated resulting in a theoretical perspective with didactical implications. This approach makes it possible to predict an effect of intervention on specific functions at specific points in development, which can be subsequently measured. It stresses the highly interrelated character of infant and parental parameters and plies for multi-perspective and longitudinal research with more attention to the specific didactical functions in parental behaviour.
TL;DR: In this article, 20 five-year-olds and 20 eight-year olds described what happens in five medical contexts (when visiting a doctor, dentist, not feeling well, going to the hospital, having an operation) for their degree of sequential structure.
Abstract: Descriptions provided by 20 five-year-olds and 20 eight-year-olds of what happens in five medical contexts (when visiting a doctor, dentist, not feeling well, going to the hospital, having an operation) were assessed for their degree of sequential structure.
TL;DR: In this paper, the relation between interaction with objects and interaction with peers in children attending day care centres is analyzed. But the focus of the work is on the relationship between objects and children.
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to analyse the relation between interaction with objects and interaction with peers in children attending day care centres. The day care centre provides the child with an opportunity to interact with peers and for new cognitive experiences. It also provides researchers with an opportunity to study the relationships between peers and objects in the child’s cognitive construction. These two domains — peer interaction and interaction with objects — represent the two poles of a unitary system which allows the child to consolidate and acquire different kinds of knowledge. The two poles can be differently activated in the child’s cognitive construction. Their integrated study affords greater understanding of a series of behavioural phenomena which occur among peers in day care centres. Naturalistic observations on early peer interaction and object-related activities will be used to illustrate the analysis. The study of the processes involved in the child’s object- and peer-related interaction and the related behavioural phenomena can provide educational suggestions in order to ensure their actual emergence and to support their positive aspects.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors found that pupils in grades 1 through 9 (ages 7-16) of the Swedish comprehensive school rated their interests in mathematics and Swedish (separately for reading and writing).
Abstract: In this study pupils in grades 1 through 9 (ages 7–16) of the Swedish comprehensive school rated their interests in mathematics and Swedish (separately for reading and writing). They also judged other aspects of their school work and situation, such as need for control and challenging tasks, their perception of the teacher, their concern with how well other pupils succeeded, and their well-being at school. Teachers rated their level of achievement in Swedish and mathematics. It was found that interests tended to decrease over time, especially in mathematics. High achievers were more interested but they as well as low achievers showed a drop in interest over the years at school. Need for control rose and general well-being dropped. The developmental trends of the interest variables could not be accounted for by a rising need for control. The decrements in challenge and well-being could explain a part of these trends in Swedish but not in mathematics.
TL;DR: In this article, the PRES-model is defined, which accounts for the discrepancy observed between logical knowledge and success on programming tasks, and two experiments on 10th grade students are reported: they show that logical knowledge is a prerequisite to the acquisition of conditional structures but not sufficient to insure acquisition.
Abstract: During the acquisition of programming concepts prior knowledge may serve as «precursor» and interacts with the informatical concepts; nevertheless the integration of prior knowledge in the new informatical frame requires forming mental representations on this device. Two experiments on conditional structures (on 10th grade students) are reported: they show that logical knowledge is a prerequisite to the acquisition of conditional structures but is not sufficient to insure acquisition. Properties of natural communication are used by many beginners when they need to handle dialog with an informatical device in programming tasks. A model, termed the PRES-model is defined, which accounts for the discrepancy observed between logical knowledge and success on programming tasks.
TL;DR: In this article, the application of an interactive processing model to classroom word recognition acquisition, in a longitudinal case-study design, was explored, where five first graders were observed four times in an instructional setting where they had to search for words in a reference text, from the various behaviors observed, it was possible to infer five differents types of searching strategies: Context-oriented, code-oriented; Unmediated; Copying; Passive.
Abstract: The present research attempts to demonstrate that it is possible and instructive to combine classroom observational procedures with theoretically guided reading concepts. It explores the application of an interactive processing model to classroom word recognition acquisition, in a longitudinal case-study design. Five first graders were observed four times in an instructional setting where they had to search for words in a reference text. From the various behaviors observed, it was possible to infer five differents types of searching strategies: Context-oriented; Code-oriented; Unmediated; Copying; Passive. The results show a great inter- and intra-individual variability in the use of the different types of strategies. In particuliar, there are different patterns of occurrence of the code-oriented and context-oriented strategies (simultaneous versus alternate). The results also show that word by word planning of the search was difficult for very beginning readers.
TL;DR: There has been considerable criticism about the effectiveness and appropriateness of degree courses in engineering over recent years as discussed by the authors, in part the criticism have related to inadequate preparation for the profession and in part to the traditional methods of teaching.
Abstract: There has been considerable criticism about the effectiveness and appropriateness of degree courses in engineering over recent years. In part the criticism have related to inadequate preparation for the profession and in part to the traditional methods of teaching. As a reaction to these criticism, attempts were made at one particular technological institution to change the way in which parts of one particular course were taught.
TL;DR: The relation between social and cognitive development has been important in several accounts of infant development as mentioned in this paper, but studies of new topics such as the infant's discrimination of people and objects may help decide which is correct.
Abstract: The relation between social and cognitive development has been important in several accounts of infant development. Piaget’s theory specifies that social and cognitive development become significant at eight months and are closely linked thereafter. Brazelton and Trevarthen emphasize the role of social development and social interaction from the first months on. Neither theory predominates today, but studies of new topics such as the infant’s discrimination of people and objects may help decide which is correct. In contrast to the question of when infants distinguish the social from the cognitive, it is obvious that the social and physical environments of the child are fundamentally different all along. Adults, and not objects, have expectations for infant development and adjust their behaviour in line with those expectations. The research on developmental outcome preserves this difference. Cognitive development in infancy proceeds normally in a great many environments. Social development, on the other hand, has been found to vary with the characteristics of the caregiver. This difference between social and cognitive development is interpretable in terms of the difference between the social and physical worlds.
TL;DR: In this paper, Piaget et al. describe a processus de construction interne de l’individu en interaction avec son environnement, i.e., the contribution of a jeu to the developpement of an enfant.
Abstract: Dans la perspective constructiviste, le developpement est le resultat d’un processus de construction interne de l’individu en interaction avec son environnement. A la suite des travaux de differents psychologues et en particulier Piaget, il est admis de reconnaitre la contribution du jeu au processus developpemental de l’enfant. Que ce soient les processus cognitifs, sociocognitifs ou moteurs le jeu contribuerait a leur developpement. Dans leur analyse des jeux de groupes de jeunes enfants, Kamii et Devries (1980) mettent en lumiere comment l’enfant passe du point de vue egocentrique a la conception de plusieurs points de vue.
TL;DR: Monolingual, native French-speaking subjects were requested either to talk or write about nine triplets of pictures whose components varied along the pragmatic dimension «new vs. given information», which modulated the choices of the subjects.
Abstract: Monolingual, native French-speaking subjects (9- and 11-year-old children and adults) were requested either to talk or write about nine triplets of pictures whose components varied along the pragmatic dimension. In the first picture in each series, all components were new. In the second and third pictures, one component was replaced each time by a new component, the other components becoming given. The oral execution of the task made the experimenter (the addressee) into a co-producer of the situational discourse produced, whereas the written production situation placed a certain distance between the producer and the addressee. The expression of the contrast between old versus new elements to be described in each situation was studied by examining the use of articles (definite and indefinite) and pronouns. The expression of oldness and newness by means of articles was more common in speaking than in writing. In the oral medium, the given/new contrast was marked more and more often as age increased, although this was not true in the writing situation where the subjects generally used definite articles, even when referring to a new element. Pronouns were used infrequently orally, particularly by 9-year-olds, to express the increasing of the elements The written use of pronouns was extremely rare. Although it was already present orally in older subjects, the tendency to give autonomy to the production associated with each picture (decreasing use of pronouns in favor of nouns) was predominant in the written medium. Maximum explicitness was favored in writing (due to the deferred reception of the production by the addressee), and the marking of elements as new or given was therefore not given priority. The way in which the written and oral production media modulated the choices of the subjects is discussed.
TL;DR: In some non-western cultures, other sorts of markers may be used to denote this transition which rely more on social phenomena than on maturational or chronological indicators as mentioned in this paper. But the functional significance of these markers relates to the functional importance of these variations: in what ways do they share common concerns and in what way do they constitute adaptations to the local environment of the culture?
Abstract: The English word infant is derived from the Latin infans meaning «without speech». In German (Saugling) and Duch (zuigeling), an infant is somebody who sucks (at the breast). The French equivalent (nourrisson) reflects that it is an organism which has to be fed. In Czech (kojenec) it is derived from the verb kojit meaning to nurse. Thus, when speech is acquired and feeding can be carried out independently, the period of infancy begins to give way to early childhood. In some non-Western cultures, other sorts of markers may be used to denote this transition which rely more on social phenomena than on maturational or chronological indicators. For example, the Kipsigis of western Kenya define the transition primarily in relation to the birth of the next child (Harkness & Super, 1983). Cultures also differ in terms of defining what are the critical features of development during infancy (LeVine, 1977) and thereby what behaviours are preferentially encouraged (or discouraged) by the caretakers (Super, 1981). It is important to appreciate differences in the culturally-constructed meaning of infancy as they provide a better understanding of the variations that manifest themselves in panhuman forms of early educational practice. The crucial, and largely unanswered, question relates to the functional significance of these variations: in what ways do they share common concerns and in what ways do they constitute adaptations to the local environment of the culture? The answers have important consequences for the acceptability and efficacy of any international programs of aid concerned with parental and child health. While there are some notable exceptions, most research concerned with cultural comparisons of infant behaviour and development is simply not up to providing appropriate answers. Understanding the nature of the initjal phase of human nurture has suffered from a neglect of the early environment of education in such comparisons. Various justifications have been offered for carrying out cross-cultural research on infancy (or what Leiderman, Tulkin & Rosenfeld, 1977, prefer to term comparative child development studies). For the present purposes, four reasons or aims can be identified.
TL;DR: The modele par elaboration de regles developpe par Siegler (1976, 1978) participe a cet effort as mentioned in this paper, and l’illustration la plus achevee de ce modele porte sur la comprehension de la balance.
Abstract: Pour Flavell (1982), il faut aujourd’hui proceder a une analyse des filiations entre connaissances, plus fine que celle menee par Piaget. Le modele par elaboration de regles developpe par Siegler (1976, 1978) participe a cet effort. L’illustration la plus achevee de ce modele porte sur la comprehension de la balance. Toutefois, comme le soulignent Larivee et al. (1987), ce modele n’est pas suffisant pour englober l’ensemble des strategies de resolution de problemes observables, notamment celle des enfants les plus jeunes.