Showing papers in "Foreign Language Annals in 2015"

The Homestay in Intensive Language Study Abroad: Social Networks, Language Socialization, and Developing Intercultural Competence.

Abstract: This study investigated the composition of the social network that the homestay offers learners in an intensive summer Arabic language program in diglossic and multilingual Tunisia and examined the types of language socialization as well as the overall linguistic and intercultural competence such opportunities present. The study specifically investigated patterns of student interaction with members of the host families and explored the degree to which students took advantage of this rich learning environment. A survey was completed by 73 students upon their return to the United States at the end of the summers of 2010–2012. Results showed that, although the social network often involved extended family members, the host mother remained the primary locus of interaction. Data also showed that the homestay offered a breadth and depth of experiences that affected students' linguistic, sociolinguistic, and cultural gains and that, postprogram, students maintained their connection to this social network via social media.

American College Students Studying Abroad in China: Language, Identity, and Self-Presentation

Abstract: This article reports the results of qualitative analyses of data drawn from monthly informal individual interviews of 29 American college students who were spending one semester studying Mandarin Chinese abroad in a program in China. While some data confirm previous findings that some students' identification as Americans was strengthened during study abroad, data also indicate that students in this study took great pride in their Chinese proficiency, fully embraced their "foreigner identity," and used it to their advantage. Studying in China did not seem to pose serious threats to this group of students' identity negotiation and self-presentation. This research supports the call to conduct research regarding learners from a wider range of language backgrounds studying in a broader range of study abroad contexts so as to more fully understand the complexity of study abroad.Key words: China, college students, identity, self-presentation, study abroadAs noted in Kinginger (2009,2013b), recent decades have seen an abundance of research on study abroad. Although the complex relationship between language and identity has been the focus in many of these studies (Kinginger, 2013a), the voice of American college students studying abroad in China still has not been heard.1 Drawing on interview data that were obtained from 29 students during their onesemester study abroad experiences in China, this study focused on the interaction among students' language skills, their identity, and the way in which they presented themselves to others.Literature ReviewLanguage, Identity, and Self-PresentationWork on identity in social science research, including second language acquisition (SLA), has been dominated by the poststructural framework in recent years (e.g., Block, 2007; Norton, 2000; Norton T rather, it is continually "negotiated" (see Duff, 2012, for a detailed discussion of identity and SLA). In her research of five Chinese students from Hong Kong who spent five weeks studying English in England, Jackson (2008) documented and analyzed the students' identity transformation. For example, some students found that, contrary to their beliefs before studying abroad that they were both Western and Chinese due to Hong Kong's colonial history, they realized after studying in England that they were fundamentally more Chinese in their culture, customs, and beliefs. In Kinginger's (2008) study, some students felt their American identity had been strengthened in the context of anti-American sentiment in France right after the invasion of Iraq in 2003, which took place when they were studying in France. This strengthening of identification as Americans seems to be a recurring theme: After reviewing literature about American students studying abroad, Block (2007) concluded that these students often became less, not more, interested in intercultural differences as a result of study abroad, stating that "[it is] most notable how SA [study abroad] is often their first and last lengthy sojourn abroad and how encountering difference leads not to active engagement with the local but to a recoiling into a discourse of American superiority" (p. 185). The fact that the identity issue becomes especially salient in the study abroad context should not be surprising because "[I]t is only through the Other that 'we' can establish our own identity, through what we are not" (Meinhof & Galasinski, 2005, p. 8). In study abroad contexts, certain customs, practices, and beliefs that learners have taken for granted their entire lives can be questioned or even challenged.In contrast, the construct self is more elusive to define (see Pellegrino, 2005, for a comprehensive review). …

Intercultural Communicative Competence Development during and after Language Study Abroad: Insights from Arabic.

Abstract: IntroductionThe study abroad experience affords rich opportunities for advancing language proficiency as well as intercultural competence among language learners. Among the record high 289,000 students who studied abroad during the academic year of 2012-2013 (Institute of International Education, 2014), about 2% spent time in the Middle East and North Africa, many in pursuit of cultural understanding of a region that is often perceived to be in conflict with the United States (Lane-Toomey & Lane, 2012, p. 5). While students stand to gain a great deal from developing intercultural competence while overseas, research dedicated to understanding such learning during study abroad and to measuring learning outcomes has yielded mixed results (Kinginger, 2009, 2011). Moreover, although study abroad programs have, with much greater regularity and validity, begun measuring language gains during studyabroadusing various standardized as well as qualitative tools, measuring student learning outcomes in the domain of intercultural communicative competence (ICC)continuestobechallenging and isthus rarely systematically undertaken (Schulz, 2007; Watson, Siska, & Wolfel, 2013). In particular, data-driven evidence on the impact of study abroad on the development of ICC for students who complete programs located in Arab countries is almost nonexistent (Shiri, 2015). The current study explored the implementation of a newly developed tool for measuring intercultural competence among American language learners during study abroad. The assessment tool emphasizes the communicative and reflective aspects of ICC and is closely tied to the language proficiency scales found through the Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) and ACTFL (ACTFL, 2012a; ILR, n.d.). Furthermore, the study examined the role of the vernacular variety of Arabic, also referred to as "dialect," in promoting the development of ICC as well as the way in which students' intercultural competence was manifested and sustained upon their reintegration in the home society, two other areas of investigation that are underrepresented in the literature.BackgroundArabic Learning and the Issue of Vernacular VarietiesThe case for teaching Arabic dialects alongside Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) to college learners of Arabic as a foreign language is more frequently and more strongly being expressed. Studies focusing on students taking Arabic in the United States have indicated that the primary reasons for pursuing this language are traveling to the Arab world (Husseinali, 2006; Kuntz & Belnap, 2001), conversing with Arabic speakers (Husseinali, 2006; Kuntz & Belnap, 2001), and learning "how to socialize with Arabs" (Abuhakema, 2004). Learning about other cultures (Husseinali, 2006) and understanding the politics of the Middle East (Husseinali, 2006) are next in terms of importance for these students. A more recent study by Lane-Toomey and Lane (2012) focusing on nontraditional study abroad destinations indicated that American sojourners in the Middle East choose that region not only in anticipation of careers in government or international relations and to promote a deeper understanding of this region but also in search of a unique experience " off the beaten path."However, Arabic language programs that prepare students for study abroad and eventual careers have been characterized mostly by what Ryding (2006) called "reverse privileging." This is the phenomenon whereby students learn MSA when they take Arabic classes at their home university, while a vernacular variety may be introduced later and is likely to be allocated disproportionately less instructional time and learned much less fluently. In this approach, the vernacular language of the "primary discourses of familiarity" is postponed or minimalized, while the language of secondary, formal discourse (i.e., MSA) is made central (Ryding, 2006, p. 16). Ryding (2006) argued that it is discouraging and limiting for students to be denied early access to the vernacular skills necessary to informally interact with Arabic speakers. …

The utility of needs analysis for nondomain expert instructors in designing task-based Spanish for the professions curricula

Abstract: IntroductionAcross the United States and globally, university language departments have experienced rising student demand for specialized instruction that serves learners' real-world needs in specificprofessional contexts like business and health care (Upton & O'Connor, 2013). To meet this demand, language for specificpurposes (LSP) courses have been increasingly incorporated into existing curricula, particularly English for specific purposes (ESP) courses, and the demand for such specialized language and cultural instruction has steadily grown in a number of more- and less-commonly taught foreign languages as well, most notably Spanish (Long & Uscinski, 2012; Sanchez-Lopez, 2010, 2013).Whereas the field of ESP has a longstanding tradition of identifying learners' communicative needs to inform curricular design (Basturkmen, 2002; Brown, 2009; Hutchison & Waters, 1987; Hyland, 2009), the subdiscipline of Spanish for specific purposes (SSP) remains largely praxisoriented and lacks a strong research base that is grounded in theory, a gap that Klee (2015) argued is linked to a lack of graduate programs in the United States that prepare faculty to teach and conduct research on LSP/SSP (p. 193). In addition, while course development desirably allows for a certain level of autonomy and collaboration among faculty members (Wang & Zhang, 2014), it also presents real challenges given that most language faculty are not experts in such specialized domains and thus are not likely to know what realworld tasks their students need to be able to accomplish in the target profession. In light of this reality, more theoretically and methodologically sound research in SSP is sorely needed, not only to improve language educators' understanding of and approach to designing LSP courses in general, but also to aid practitioners who increasingly find themselves in the position of designing syllabi, pedagogical materials, and target assessment outcomes for specialized courses.One way to specify the knowledge and skills that students need in order to participate effectively in local and global business contexts is by adopting a task-based language teaching (TBLT) approach to curricular development, instruction, and evaluation (e.g., Long, 1985, 2005a, 2015; Norris, 2009; Van den Branden, 2006; Van den Branden, Bygate, & Norris, 2009). Research that details the steps and outcomes of a task-based needs analysis can serve not only to increase communication between researchers and practitioners but also to refine instructors' understanding of task-based approaches to language teaching beyond what is commonly equated to "communicative activities" (Ogilvie & Dunn, 2010; Zheng & Borg, 2014). While task-based approaches have become more common, particularly in ESP research (e.g., Evans, 2013; Lambert, 2010) and recently in action-research studies looking at individual tasks (e.g., Calvert & Sheen, 2015), a review of studies in the area of SSP reveals few that implemented needs assessment following TBLT principles. The current study reports the results of a small-scale, multiphase needs analysis project in a business Spanish setting that yielded data on the perceived frequency and difficulty of 40 tasks that were suggested by domain experts in a variety of business settings. From these data, a final list of 14 core target tasks were selected and grouped into five core tasks that in turn informed curricular outcome goals and guided course organization and instruction.Review of LiteratureA Task-Based Approach to Needs AnalysisRather than developing LSP materials around specific texts or text types, taskbased approaches to language teaching advocate for the use of task as the primary unit of organization and analysis in all phases of program building (Long, 1985, 2003, 2005a, 2005b, 2013, 2015; Norris, 2009; Skehan, 1998; Van den Branden, 2006; Van den Branden et al., 2009). It is important to note that the construct of task is compatible with both psycholinguistic and sociocultural perspectives on how adults learn additional languages as each task provides a unit around which to organize lessons and opportunities for language use and learning (Ellis, 2000). …

The Acquisition of an Egyptian Phonological Variant by U.S. Students in Cairo

Abstract: This study investigated the acquisition of an Egyptian phonological variant by student participants in a study abroad program at The American University in Cairo. Participants completed pre- and post-study abroad Simulated Oral Proficiency Interviews (SOPIs). The SOPI data showed a move toward an Egyptian realization of the phonological variable on the part of most participants. Furthermore, extralinguistic factors such as participant gender and status as a heritage speaker were likewise shown to influence variant choice, while factors such as length of stay abroad and word position of the target token were not shown to have a significant effect on target item realization. In contrast to other studies investigating the acquisition of target language sociolinguistic norms in the form of phonological variables in Spanish, this study found an extremely high rate of learner adoption of an Egyptian realization of this variable among learners of Arabic in Cairo.Key words: Arabic, gender, heritage status, sociolinguistic variation(ProQuest: ... denotes non-US-ASCII text omitted.)IntroductionArabic is frequently cited as a critical language (T. A. Taha, 2007), and the number of institutions offering instruction in the language has greatly increased in recent decades (Abdalla, 2006). In spite of this rapid growth, the field of Arabic instruction continues to suffer from difficulties arising from the posited Modern Standard Arabic (MSA)/colloquial Arabic binary, typically referred to as diglossia (Ferguson, 1959). Language professionals often grapple with the issue of how much colloquial Arabic, and which kind, should be incorporated into the curriculum. The solution for many programs has been to assume that Arabic learners will simply "pick up" the dialect they need while abroad (see Ryding, 2009, and the contributions to Wahba, Taha, and England, 2014, for attempts to address this issue). Unfortunately, the field is hampered by a lack of studies that empirically investigate the processes through which adult American learners of Arabic interact with the target Arabic dialect while in a study abroad context. The current study represented an attempt to address one limited facet of Arabic learners' acquisition of the target dialect, namely learners' choice of whether to use a sociolinguistically marked local variant of a particular phoneme or to produce the nonlocal variant that is used in the vast majority of widely available Arabic instructional materials used in the United States. This specific phonological variable, referred to throughout for ease of readability as [j], can be realized in a number of ways according to the geographical Arabic dialect of a given speaker. In Egyptian Arabic, however, it is typically realized as [g].Review of LiteratureStudy Abroad and Second/Foreign Language AcquisitionThe effect of learning context on second language acquisition has proven to be a rich area for investigation in recent decades, with a large body of research focusing on the interaction between the study abroad context and a variety of areas related to second language productive skills. Although a number of researchers have found that the at-home or immersion contexts can be just as if not more strongly associated with second language gains as study abroad (D^iaz-Campos, 2004; Freed, Segalowitz, & Dewey, 2004), study abroad research has generally found a positive effect for the context in areas such as oral and written fluency(Dewey,2004;Segalowitz& Freed,2004; Serrano, Llanes, & Tragant, 2011) as well as other aspects of learner development, such as stylistic use of the language (D^iaz-Campos, 2006). Of particular relevance to the current study are studies that found a positive benefit for study abroad in learner phonological development(Mora, 2008), intonation (Henriksen,Geeslin,& Willis, 2010), and the development of learner sociolinguistic competence (Regan, 1995). …

Teacher vs. Peer Oral Corrective Feedback in the German Language Classroom

Abstract: This classroom study investigated the effects of oral teacher and peer corrective feedback on the acquisition of the German present perfect tense, including auxiliary verb selection (a rule-based structure) and past participle formation (an item-based structure). Intermediate learners of German were assigned to a teacher feedback condition, a peer feedback condition, or a control group. Learners in the teacher feedback group were corrected by their course instructor, while learners in the peer feedback group were trained to provide guidance to each other at the beginning of a two-day instructional treatment. Results from both an immediate and delayed posttest showed that while both experimental groups significantly improved in grammatical accuracy with both auxiliary selection and the past participle, the largest improvement was seen among the learners in the peer feedback group. These findings suggest that peer corrective feedback heightens learners' awareness of linguistic forms and that learners who provide such feedback may benefit not only from receiving but also from providing it. The results further demonstrate that peer feedback can be effective with less-proficient learners and with different types of grammatical structures.

Supporting Student Learning Outcomes Through Service Learning

Abstract: IntroductionService learning (SL) is increasingly embraced across the K-16 spectrum due to its potential to extend students' learning beyond the classroom and launch them, either virutally or in face-to-face situations, into the world beyond. By means of these more challenging and meaningful experiences and relationships, it is believed that students have opportunities to increase their language skills, develop deeper cultural sensitivity, and apply knowledge from other content areas. Furthermore, students learn to mindfully and systematically reflect on their actions and consider the extent to which their service meets the needs of their community partners, both by carefully evaluating the impact of their work and by making adjustments to ensure its efficacy and excellence. Because of the potential opportunities for rich and meaningful student learning, the ACTFL selected community engagement and service learning as one of six research priority areas.Supported in part by an ACTFL Research Priorities grant, this study explored one key assumption about the goals and results of SL: that SL offers students meaningful benefits and contributes to the achievement of stated student learning outcomes (SLOs) that cannot be otherwise experienced in their programs of study. Because there is a need for additional evidence of the types of student learning that are actually taking place at the SL site, this study sought to critically and systematically assess the SL experience and to document its impact on student learning. Specifically, data were gathered to determine the extent to which students who had Intermediate Low to Mid proficiency in Spanish engaged in service activities that supported coursespecific learning outcomes and also met additional learning outcomes that were not specific to the course.Review of LiteratureService Learning: An Approach to Language LearningService learning, broadly defined as "a teaching and learning strategy that integrates meaningful community service with instruction and reflection to enrich the learning experience, teach civic responsibility, and strengthen communities" (National Service-Learning Clearinghouse, 2013) is a transformative pedagogy with numerous applications in foreign language education. Scholarship in this area is expanding rapidly, with a primary focus on identifying benefits to students, as is evident in the numerous studies exploring the impact of SL on students' attitude toward civic engagement, diverse cultural communities, and language learning (Astin, Vogelgesang, Ikeda, & Yee, 2000; Elorriaga, 2007; Jorge, 2011; Pellettieri, 2011; Zapata, 2011). Other studies have identified positive changes in students' motivation, confidence, leadership skills, sense of social responsibility, and cognitive and critical thinking skills (Bringle, Phillips, & Hudson, 2004; Carney, 2013; Eyler & Giles, 1999; Long, 2003; Medina & Gordon, 2014; Nelson & Scott, 2008). SL has been shown to provide students with a limited immersion experience without actually leaving the country (Lear & Abbott, 2008; Weldon & Trautmann, 2003). In fact, Pellettieri (2011) reported that, prior to participating in SL, 39% of her students had never spoken Spanish to a native speaker (p. 294). Two recent, notable studies described previously unexplored applications of SL: CarracelasJuncal (2013) examined the positive impact of SL in graduate-level, online courses for teacher education on students who were heritage speakers of Spanish, and King de Ramirez (2015) reported on a Culture for the Professions course whose curriculum was designed around three pedagogies: the cultural intelligence model, community SL, and Language for Specific Purposes.Of particular relevance to the current study is the symbiotic relationship that existsbetweenSLandtheACTFLWorldReadiness Standards for Learning Languages (National Standards Collaborative Board, 2015). Researchers have found that SL pedagogy supports the Standards, also referred to as the five "C" goal areas, by providing students with opportunities for communicative language use in authentic situations (Standards 1. …

Arabic Spelling: Errors, Perceptions, and Strategies

Abstract: This study investigated common spelling errors among first language English speakers who study Arabic at the college level. A sample of 63 students (45 males and 18 females) was asked to write texts about a variety of topics and then to answer survey questions regarding their perceptions and strategies. Their writing produced 457 spelling errors, which were examined and classified. The results demonstrate that the spelling skill is developmental and that it offers a necessary structure for students to master key elements of Arabic. The wide variety of spelling errors made by participants points to their unsatisfactory awareness of the language's phonology, morphology, and orthography aspects. Participants perceived an important connection between the spelling skill and such other skills as reading, writing, and pronunciation, but they perceived its development as challenging, due to insufficient practice. Their strategies for memorizing words included using textbooks and online dictionaries, repetition and practice, and simply sounding out the words. The results indicated potential implications that current and future Arabic instructors can use to help students develop the spelling skill.

The Implementation of High-Leverage Teaching Practices: From the University Classroom to the Field Site.

Abstract: In response to the ACTFL's Research Priorities Initiative, the present study used a multiple case study design to examine teacher candidates' ability to implement two high-leverage teaching practices: increasing interaction and target language comprehensibility and questioning to build and assess student understanding. Candidates implemented these practices in K–12 foreign language classrooms following a practice-based methodology course. Findings revealed that candidates could more easily translate some aspects of practice to the field site than others. Generally, teacher candidates scored better on aspects of practice for which they were able to plan and practice than on those that required them to vary from their lesson plans or make in-the-moment decisions. Teacher candidates struggled the most with aspects of practice that involved sustaining meaningful interaction with students.

Active Learning: Qualitative Inquiries Into Vocabulary Instruction in Chinese L2 Classrooms

Abstract: Active learning emerged as a new approach to learning in the 1980s. The core concept of active learning involves engaging students not only in actively exploring knowledge but also in reflecting on their own learning process in order to become more effective learners. Because the nonalphabetic nature of the Chinese writing system makes learning to read and write Chinese characters extremely time-consuming for native English speakers, this qualitative study was intended to identify instructional strategies, methods, and activities for promoting active learning among beginning learners of Chinese as a second language and to investigate students' perceptions of the identified strategies, methods, and activities with regard to their effectiveness in engaging students in meaningful learning.

Can Retrieval Opportunities Increase Vocabulary Learning During Reading

Abstract: Because reading for meaning only can lead to low rates of second language (L2) vocabulary learning and because previous research has demonstrated the benefits of word retrieval opportunities for intentional L2 vocabulary learning (Barcroft, 2007; McNamara & Healy, 1995a, Experiment 2; Royer, 1973), the present study assessed the effect of providing learners with opportunities to retrieve novel words as they read a passage. Seventy-four Spanish-speaking intermediate learners of L2 English read an English text for meaning. Each of five target words (e.g., smidgen) appeared three times in the text. Control participants (n = 37) always viewed the Spanish translations of the target words. Participants in the experimental condition (n = 37) viewed the Spanish translation for each target word only the first time the word appeared and then attempted to retrieve and produce (write) the word on their own for the final two appearances. Both first language (L1)-to-L2 and L2-to-L1 posttests were administered. Results indicated a highly significant (51%) increase in vocabulary learning for the experimental group over the control group. These findings suggest that both partial and complete target word retrieval can strengthen developing lexical representations and that word retrieval may be utilized to increase vocabulary learning during reading regardless of the L2 in question.

Learner Performance in Mandarin Immersion and High School World Language Programs: A Comparison.

Abstract: This study compared the Mandarin performance of elementary immersion program students and high school world language program students in the same school district. A cross-sectional design was employed to gather information on Mandarin proficiency of fourth and fifth graders and Level 4 and Level 5 (AP Chinese) high school students who took the Mandarin Standards-Based Measurement of Proficiency assessment at the end of the school year. Results indicated that immersion students slightly outperformed the comparison high school group in reading but lagged slightly behind in writing and speaking skills, for which assessment tasks required higher levels of cognitive awareness. Findings also showed that while only a few nonheritage speakers in the high school world language program continued to Level 5 (AP), most nonheritage speakers remained in the immersion program for the full duration and performed as well, or nearly as well, as the heritage speakers when exiting the program. Further studies are needed, but the findings provide a strong rationale for the role of Mandarin immersion programs in assisting students to develop higher levels of linguistic proficiency in Mandarin.

Students With Learning Disabilities in the Foreign Language Learning Environment and the Practice of Exemption

Abstract: Thisexaminationoftheliteratureonforeign,orsecond,languagelearning by native English-speaking students with disabilities addresses the benefits of language learning, the practices and policies of language exemption, the perceptions of students and educators regarding those practices, and available resources for supporting students withspecialneeds.Itaimstoquestionthepolicyofgrantingforeignlanguageexemptions while additionally providing insights for educators into the development of inclusive foreign language learning environments.

The Development of Requests by L2 Learners of Modern Standard Arabic: A Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Study.

Abstract: This study examined the development of requests made by second language (L2) learners of Modern Standard Arabic at four levels of L2 ability. The study used longitudinal and cross-sectional data collection to investigate how learners' performance of requests developed over a five-month period and differed as a function of ability level. The results indicated U-shaped development, with learners initially decreasing their use of direct requests and increasing their use of indirect requests as their overall language ability increased. However, at higher ability levels, learners approximated native speaker norms by reverting to direct requests. This developmental pattern demonstrated the constraining effect of learners' sociopragmatic competence on their pragmalinguistic performance. In addition, the findings highlighted the nonuniversality of developmental stages proposed by Kasper and Rose (2002), showing that developmental trajectories differ between languages with a preference for indirect requests (such as English and Greek) and those with a preference for direct requests (such as Arabic).

A High‐Leverage Language Teaching Practice: Leading an Open‐Ended Group Discussion

Abstract: In response to calls for more practice-based teacher education, this study investigated the way in which two high-performing novice world language teachers, one in Spanish and one in Latin, implemented a high-leverage teaching practice, leading an open-ended group discussion. Observational data revealed a number of constituent micro-practices. The article offers examples illustrating the way in which the practice was achieved and also captures the impact of such practices on classroom discourse. Findings provide an initial basis upon which continued research on high-leverage teaching practices in the world language education context can be pursued.

The Relationship between Global Competence and Language Learning Motivation: An Empirical Study in Critical Language Classrooms.

Abstract: IntroductionResearchers in the past few decades have focused on motivation in language learning and have generally concluded that motivation affects overall acquisition of target language (Deuroornyei, 1998; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003). Somewhat more recently, many programs, instructors, and learners have begun to consider the concept of global competence (Li, 2013). While global competence and language learning motivation represent two clearly different constructs, a number of studies have recognized them as important factors affecting students' target language learning outcomes (see Jackson, 2015; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003; Rubenfeld,Sinclair, & Clement, 2007; Tam, 2009). However, there is a dearth of research that has examined the relationship between global competence and language learning motivation in foreign language classrooms. The present study investigated the relationship between global competence and language learning motivation in the context of critical language classrooms at the postsecondary level.Review of LiteratureGlobal CompetenceScholars have used many different terms to refer to the concept of global competence, including intercultural competence, global citizenship, global mindset, and interculturalsensitivity (Li, 2013). In addition, a number of definitions have been proposed (Blumenthal & Grothus, 2008; Deardorff, 2011; Hunter, White, & Godbey, 2006; Li, 2013). For the purpose of this study, global competence is defined in harmony with the Hunter et al. (2006) definition as having the knowledge and ability to identify cultural differences, having the interest to interact with people from cultures outside of one'sown,and utilizing linguistic and cultural skills to communicate in the most effective manner in different contexts.Although disagreement exists on both the concepts and the exact definitions (Arasaratnam, 2009), scholars do in fact agree on many of the components that contribute to global competence, including knowledge, motivation (affective component), behavior (psychomotor component), and context (situational component) (see Duran & Spitzberg, 1995; Lustig & Koester, 2013; Moeller & Faltin Osborn, 2014; Neuliep, 2014; Spitzberg & Cupach, 1984). From this perspective, in order to behave in a globally competent manner, foreign language students need to be equipped with more than a high level of language proficiency and paralinguistic knowledge about the target language; they also need to know the values, beliefs, customs, and behaviors of the cultures in which the target language is used. Due to the existence of these separate but interconnected components, global competence is notconsideredtobeaninbornorstatic attribute; rather, it is composed of learned skills and behaviors that characterize an individual's way of interacting with others (Cupach & Imahori, 1993).Research on global competence in educational and language learning contexts has investigated the role of study abroad (e.g., Machorro, 2009) as well as the skills and characteristics that students need to acquire so as to become globally competent (e.g., Deardorff, 2006; Lohmann, Gordon, Harwell, McLaughlin, & Paraska, 2008; Reimers, 2009; Willard, 2011). Other researchers have proposed theoretical frameworks for teaching intercultural communicative competency in foreign language classrooms (Borghetti, 2012; Moeller & Faltin Osborn, 2014), while still others have investigated ways to cultivate students' global competence in educational settings (e.g., Li, 2013).Motivation and L2 LearningAcknowledging the importance of, and helping learners to develop and use, paralinguistic knowledge and high levels of language proficiency as well as to demonstrate culturally appropriate values, beliefs, and behaviors mentioned above is not sufficient; learners must also be motivated to enhance and refine each aspect of global competence and to speak and act appropriately. …

High School Spanish Teachers' Attitudes and Practices Toward Spanish Heritage Language Learners

Abstract: IntroductionThe Hispanic population in the United States increased by 15.2 million between 2000 and 2010 (Ennis, R^ios-Vargas, & Albert, 2011, p. 2)-a trend that is projected to continue, reaching 128.8 million by 2060 and making one in three U.S. residents Hispanic (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2012, n.p.). This national trend has long been apparent in Florida, California, and Arizona, with their historically high concentrations of Hispanics, but it is also becoming more apparent in Indiana, where the Hispanic population increased by 81.7% from 2000 to 2010 (Ennis et al., 2011, p. 6). This increase affects multiple sectors of society, including education in general and high school teachers of Spanish as a second language (L2) in particular, as more Hispanic students are enrolled in classes designed for traditional L2 learners. Interestingly, only 11% of Hispanic children in the United States are first-generation immigrants who were born outside the United States; the remaining 89% would be considered heritage language learners (HLLs) because they were born in the United States of at least one foreign-born parent or grandparent (Fry & Passell, 2009, p. 1). HLLs are different from other groups of Hispanic children, such as native speakers of Spanish, because they maygrowuphearingSpanishandusing noncolloquial registers but often do not have the opportunity to practice outside the home or to complete formal schooling in Spanish and develop literacy skills. Therefore, they bring to the Spanish classroom varying levels of proficiency in oral and written Spanish as well as dialectal variation. In many cases, they display syntactic, lexical, and register gaps, as well as identity issues, that do not align with the experiences of traditional L2 learners or native speakers. As a result, beginning several decades ago, Spanish classes at the postsecondary level were specifically designed for HLLs. In 2010, 40% of U.S. colleges and universities reported offering specific courses and programs for Spanish HLLs, a notable increase from 1990, when only 18% offered such courses (Beaudrie, 2012b, p. 207). Multiple studies have shown that HLLs do indeed benefit from separate courses (e.g., see Krashen, 2000; Potowski, Parada, & Morgan-Short, 2012). In addition to programs at the postsecondary level, Spanish courses that are specifically designed for HLLs have also sometimes been offered in secondary schools, although it appears that comprehensive data on high schools remain to be collected. Beginning to fill this gap in the literature and helping to increase the understanding of the high school HLL context will position high school teachers to better serve HLLs and prepare them for success beyond high school.The present case study used data from the U.S. Department of Education (2013) as a point of departure; this report showed that the average pupil-teacher ratio in Indiana is 16.7 students, and therefore, one could argue that any schools with 17 or more HLLs would have enough students to merit a separate Spanish class. Using this argument, one could determine that, of the 38 high schools in an eight-county area known as East Central Indiana, 13 had a sufficient population of Hispanic students in 2013 to theoretically justify a Spanish class for HLLs. However, only one high school in the region actually offered such a course that year. To begin to understand the factors that affect the implementation of Spanish HLL programs, the present study was designed to investigate high school Spanish teachers' attitudes toward HLLs and instructional practices to support them.Literature ReviewA variety of de fi nitions of the term heritage language learner exist, although nearly all distinguish between HLLs, native speakers, and other students of Spanish. For example, Vald^es's (2000) definition of an HLL was "a student who is raised in a home where a non-English language is spoken, who speaks or merely understands the heritage language and who is to some degree bilingual in English and the heritage language" (p. …

Peer mentoring second language teachers: a mutually beneficial experience?

Abstract: Studies have shown that there are not enough qualified foreign language and English as a second language teachers in this country. To increase the number of new second language teachers who remain in the profession, and to promote their use of best teaching practices, the ACTFL has identified mentoring as a national research priority. The importance of mentoring is further reflected in the new national standards established by the Council for Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP) for teacher education programs. To address CAEP standards for advanced licensure programs and meet the needs of new second language teachers, a peer mentoring project was initiated. Using a mixed methodology, the researchers investigated the perceived benefits of a partnership between 27 mentors in an advanced licensure second language teaching program and 27 mentees, many of whom were practicing “lateral entry” second language teachers who had not yet completed second language teacher training. The results suggested that, when both parties shared content area expertise and worked together in a nonjudgmental, supportive manner, the partnership was mutually beneficial. The results also suggested that the relationship can be facilitated when both partners share certain commonalities, including age and amount of previous teaching experience.

Rethinking the ICC Framework: Transformation and Telecollaboration

Abstract: IntroductionIntercultural communicative competence (ICC) has been defined as "the ability to communicate effectively in cross-cultural situations and to relate appropriately in a variety of cultural contexts" (Bennett & Bennett, 2004, p. 149). First proposed by Byram in 1997, ICC was catapulted into the center of language teaching and learning by the rapid advancement in computer technology and the Internet revolution that allowed second language (L2) learners to connect with other learners and with native speakers both at home and around the world: Instead of relying on such opportunities as travel or study abroad could offer for interaction with native speakers, L2 learners could increasingly connect with others as a means of increasing their language proficiency, sharing ideas, and deepening their understanding of other cultures. Awareness of ICC offered a fresh perspective on language teaching and learning, opening up a wide range of new activities that have enriched students' learning opportunities within and beyond the classroom. Basharina, Guardado, and Morgan (2008) noted the extent to which "[T]elecollaborative projects designed for language learning . . . expand the pedagogical focus beyond language learning to learning culture" (p. 276). Technological advancements continue to make it possible for international telecollaborative projects to virtually connect parallel language learners from different cultures as well as to evaluate learners' ICC. This study was designed to examine the impact of ICC during a 6-week international e-mail telecollaboration of L2 learners using an asynchronous Web 1.01 platform.Literature ReviewE-mail exchanges represent one of the earliest, and hence most commonly used, technologies for telecollaborative purposes; the use of e-mail exchanges has been studied and, due to its many benefits, promoted. Because of e-mail'seaseofuse, asynchronous nature, and fundamental utility as a communication tool, a variety of language learning activities can be implemented that promote student engagement and intercultural learning. A number of studies have shown that e-mail has brought value to language learning environments (Byram, 1997; Gaer, 1999; Mueuroller-Hartmann, 2000; O'Dowd, 2004, 2007; Warschauer, 1997).In the last decade, the Internet revolution has fundamentally changed the methods,thespeed,andthenatureof intercultural communication. As more and more people around the world gain access to the Internet, "cultural encounters" take on a completely different dimension, providing new opportunities as well as challenges to foreign language instructors and learners alike. With the advancement of the Internet, using e-mail has become an everyday occurrence, a normal part of people's lives, or, in the words of Bax (2003), we have reached "the stage when the technology becomes invisible, embedded in everyday practice and hence 'normalized'" (p. 23). With the excitement over Web 2.0 and the increased popularity of blogs, wikis, and video chat, e-mail seems antiquated and anachronistic (Wang & V^asquez, 2012). Yet precisely because of its wide acceptance, the use of e-mail has become an integral part of everyday communication. Because the technology for e-mail has become invisible, the content takes center stage, making possible a close examination of the telecollaborative exchange and learners' ICC without the distraction, or the hindrance, of technology. However, O'Dowd (2004) warned that even though an e-mail exchange offers distinct opportunities, "theoutcome...isoftennotas positive as teachers may expect" (p. 145).Early on, Byram (1997) identified five key components for achieving and assessing ICC in a foreign language classroom: attitudes, knowledge, skills of discovery and interaction, skills of interpreting and relating, and critical awareness or an evaluative orientation. All these components, he argued, were essential to becoming interculturally competent. …

Aspects of Vocabulary Knowledge in German Textbooks

Abstract: Previous research on second language vocabulary acquisition has shown that learning to use a new word is not a simple matter of making a form–meaning connection. Knowing a word instead requires mastery of as many as nine different aspects of vocabulary knowledge (Nation, 2001). The current study uses data from five beginning-level textbooks of German as a foreign language that are widely used at American universities to examine which of these aspects of vocabulary knowledge are addressed in textbook activities. The results show that activities in lower-level German textbooks focus overwhelmingly on form–meaning connections and grammatical functions while ignoring other aspects, such as collocations, word parts, and concept and referents. A pedagogical approach that takes the entire classroom ecology into account is suggested.

Learning to Teach a Foreign Language: Identity Negotiation and Conceptualizations of Pedagogical Progress

Abstract: IntroductionIn line with Freeman's (2009) widening gyre (i.e., expanding scope) characterization of second language teacher education, as well as social conceptualizations of learning (e.g., Johnson, 2009), a growing number of scholars are taking interest in language teacher identity construction. Several literature reviews have recently been published on the topic in general teacher education (e.g., Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009; Beijaard, Meijer, & Verloop, 2004; Izadinia, 2012) and in language teacher education (e.g., Martel & Wang, 2015; Miller, 2009; Morgan & Clarke, 2011), outlining major themes across studies. Martel and Wang (2015), e.g., highlighted the role of biographies, contexts, practice, native speaker status, and culture in the shaping of language teachers' identities. They also noted a dearth of research on teachers' identity in foreign language, immersion, and bilingual education contexts, as opposed to English as a second language (ESL) or English as a foreign language contexts. Given substantial differences in the nature of the working conditions that exist across contexts, this gap is significant. Differences in national context (e.g., teaching French in the United States vs. teaching French in Australia) should also be taken into consideration.To date, a handful of studies have focused on foreign language teachers' identities in the United States, shedding light on participants' cultural identities, perceptions of their native speaker status, and general learning throughout their preparation programs (Antonek, McCormick, & Donato, 1997; Fichtner & Chapman, 2011; Luebbers, 2010; V^elez-Rend^on, 2010). In response to calls for the use of varied theoretical frameworks in investigating language teacher development (Tedick & Wesely, 2015) and identity construction (Varghese, Morgan, Johnston, & Johnson, 2005), the present study was designed to build upon these studies by exploring a Spanish student teacher's identity development, specifically her pedagogical identity, during her yearlong preparation program. According to Alexander (2008), pedagogy is "the act of teaching with its attendant discourse. It is what one needs to know, and the skills one needs to command, in order to make and justify the many different kinds of decisions of which teaching is constituted" (p. 11). For the purposes of this study, learning about pedagogy was conceptualized as the internalization of identity positions that are associated with commonly emphasized constructs in foreign language methods courses and in frequently used pedagogical manuals (e.g., Shrum & Glisan, 2010), such as corrective feedback or the balance of target and other languages in the classroom. For example, a student teacher might demonstrate learning about the latter in identity terms by saying, "It's important to me to useSpanish90%ofthetimeinmy classroom." Conversely, a statement such as "I'm comfortable using Spanish 40% of the time with my students" may indicate a lack of responsiveness to a preparation program's message about target language use.Employing identity in the study of pedagogical learning is noteworthy because identity, more so than other constructs, such as actions, has the potential to speak to the longevity (i.e., the future trajectory) of learning (Freeman, 2013). In other words, understanding the extent to which language teacher preparation programs' curricular objectives are internalized into teachers' self-concepts rather than simply analyzing what they do in the classroom may provide more significant and accurate information about the long(er)-term success-that is, the durability-of the educational innovations represented by these objectives. This information is of special interest to teacher educators, who are not only naturally invested in facilitating the implementation of the research-based, field-advancing innovations, but also actively involved in the design of teacher preparation programs. …

Designing and Sustaining a Foreign Language Writing Proficiency Assessment Program at the Postsecondary Level

Abstract: IntroductionWriting in postsecondary foreign language contexts in North America has received far less attention in the curriculum than the development of oral proficiency. While at least one extensive volume on the importance of advanced writing in foreign language contexts exists (Byrnes, Maxim, & Norris, 2010), there remain a number of reasons that account for the lack of both research-based and instruction-based attention to the development of foreign language writing throughout the early years of language acquisition. First, the focus of foreign language instruction at the postsecondary level in the United States is most often on oral proficiency goals. Most foreign language programs intend to prepare learners to speak and listen and to read so that they are able to negotiate overseas foreign settings with confidence. Hence, oral proficiency is emphasized and writing in these contexts is often relegated to exercises that reveal learners' acquisition of grammatical forms or developing breadth of vocabulary, to the thank-you note to foreign hosts or the personal resume, or as a means of measuring syntactic complexity. In upper-level courses, programs may even allow compositions to be written in the native language of students, English in the American context, in order to facilitate deeper literary and cultural interpretations. Even dissertations produced in foreign language departments in many American universities are written in English. This phenomenon stands in stark contrast to the field of English as a second language, which attempts to prepare English language learners with the skills that they will need to pursue bachelor'sor post-bachelor's degrees in English-speaking countries-a project that necessarily entails copious amounts of academic writing. A number of research studies such as Leki (1995) and Leki and Carson (1997) exist on this topic and have been synthesized succinctly by Hedgcock (2005).Another speculation for the lack of focus on foreign language writing is that writing is a planned language performance, in contrast to the spontaneous language performance of oral proficiency, and, hence, is viewed as less demanding. The language development research that has dominated studies in second language acquisition has been principally rooted in oral assessments, with literacy (writing or reading) rarely acknowledged as an important dimension of input (Bernhardt, 2011). With the exception of Byrnes and colleagues (2010), who contended that writing provides learners with the ability to perform in genres and hence is a "particularly valued indicator of overall FL development toward upper levels of ability" (p. 4), most research has ignored learners' abilities to integrate spoken and written texts; even fewer studies referred to foreign language writing in terms of relatively lengthy connected discourse. Reichelt (1999) thoroughly reviewed these and other dilemmas confronted by the context of foreign language writing.The development of the foreign language profession itself from the 1980s onward has lacked perspective on writing development. In the early years of the proficiency movement, the focus was exclusively on oral proficiency and centered on a consistent measure of student performance, most especially in their oral performance. Admittedly, the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines entailed reading, writing, listening, and speaking from their initial publication in 1982, with the primary emphasis on oral proficiency. This was evidenced by a full- scale certification process, attached only to oral proficiency interviewing and rating with concomitant recertification possibilities, that was developed throughout the 1980s. The potential for assessment in reading, listening, and writing, comparable to oral proficiency assessment, remained untapped for more than a decade. Writing proficiency has, of course, been included from the inception of the formal discussion around proficiency rooted in the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) guidelines. …

Language Deficits in Poor L2 Comprehenders: The Simple View

Abstract: The simple view of reading (SVR) model proposes that reading comprehension is the product of word decoding and language comprehension, and that both components make independent contributions to reading skill (Gough & Tunmer, 1986). The model posits that there are good readers and three types of poor readers—dyslexic, hyperlexic, and garden variety—who exhibit different profiles of strengths and/or deficits in word decoding and language comprehension. In this study, 165 first- and second-year high school students studying Spanish as a second language in the United States were administered standardized measures of Spanish word decoding, pseudoword decoding, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. Participants' scores were compared to monolingual Spanish readers from grades 1 to 9 and then classified according to SVR reader types. The majority of students met the hyperlexic profile (good word decoding, poor reading comprehension). No participant fit the dyslexic criteria (poor decoding, good reading comprehension), and none met the good reader criteria (good word decoding, good reading comprehension) at a level higher than that of second-grade monolingual Spanish learners.

Measuring the Impact of Instruction in Intercultural Communication on Secondary Spanish Learners' Attitudes and Motivation

Abstract: Many scholars have argued that an intercultural approach to foreign language instruction best reflects the inherent interconnectedness of language and culture. However, abundant evidence of the effectiveness of such an approach is lacking, particularly at the secondary level. This two-year curricular experiment, which took place in two public high schools in the United States, investigated the impact of explicit instruction in intercultural communication theories and direct participation in activities designed to promote intercultural competency on the attitudes and motivation of secondary learners of Spanish as a foreign language. Data for both the experimental and control groups showed that students' pretest attitudes toward the Spanish language and Spanish-speaking cultures were generally positive. Comparisons of pre- and posttest scores showed that the treatment group showed a statistically significant increase in positive attitudes, including increases in both integrative and instrumental motivation, as well as more positive attitudes toward both European Spanish speakers and U.S. Hispanics. Results showed that, for one control group, students' attitudes did not change, and attitudes of students in the second control group became less positive over the period under consideration.Key words: attitudes, high school, implementation and assessment, intercultural awareness and competence, motivationIntroductionResearchers have reported conflicting data concerning students' motivation to learn foreign languages and their attitudes toward foreign language study in the United States. On the one hand, Rivers, Robinson, Harwood, and Brecht (2013) reported wide-spread grassroots support for the study of languages other than English: In a 2008 nationwide survey, 80% of adult respondents agreed or strongly agreed "that children in the United States should learn a second language fluently before they finish high school" (p. 333). On the other hand, scholars have also suggested that contextual factors may work to reduce students' motivation to study languages other than English; such factors may include perceived geographical isolation and a sense of cultural and/or linguistic superiority (Acheson, 2004), the global rise of English as a lingua franca (Anderson, 2000; Gass & Selinker, 2001; Mantle-Bromley, 1997), English-only movements (Wiley, 2004), the persistence of language-based discriminatory practices (Lippi-Green, 2012), the widespread acceptability of mock Spanish1 (Hill, 2008), and the sensitive history and politics of immigration in the United States (Fishman, 2004; Lippi-Green, 2012).While several studies have investigated learners' self-reported attitudes toward languages and language learning at the elementary level (Cort^es, 2002) and at the postsecondary level (Cochran, McCallum, & Bell, 2010; Martin, 2009), few studies have investigated the impact of an intercultural communication (ICC) curriculum on secondary learners' attitudes toward, and motivation for, language study. The study reported here utilized an experimental repeated-measures design to compare the motivation and attitudes toward languages and cultures of two control groups with data obtained from a treatment group for whom the standard Spanish language curriculum was supplemented with activities that addressed the practices, products, and perspectives of culture and that emphasized the development of intercultural competence.Review of LiteratureResearchers in the field of foreign and second language pedagogy have long argued that language and culture are intricately connected (Cl^ement, 1986; Deuroornyei & Cl^ement, 2001; Kramsch, 1991; Lambert, 1991). Scholars such as Kramsch (1993) have suggested that it is difficult, if not impossible, to understand the complexities of another culture without understanding its language(s), and that it is equally problematic to try mastering a language abstracted from the culture(s) in which it is used: "Culture in language learning is not an expendable fifth skill. …

Language Mediation in an L3 Classroom: The Role of Task Modalities and Task Types

Abstract: Pedagogical tasks in language learning settings promote learner–learner interaction and provide second language (L2) learners with opportunities to process authentic input and produce output (Philp, Adams, & Iwashita, 2014). During these interactions, learners use their language repertoire to mediate their output (Swain & Lapkin, 2000). Although language mediation has been investigated in various L2 settings, few studies have explored the mediating functions of the languages of plurilingual learners from a sociocultural perspective. The current case study examined the specific mediating functions of language sources (i.e., first, second, and third language) in the oral and written modalities during different types of pedagogical tasks among four students learning French as a third language (L3) in Mexico. Data sources included interactional turns produced during task completion and one-on-one interviews. The findings indicated that task modalities and task types impact the specific mediating functions of the L1 and L3. In addition, the quantity of L1 mediation appeared to be impacted by the learners' linguistic proficiencies. Implications for foreign language pedagogy are presented

The Functions of Reflection in High‐Stakes Assessment of World Language Teacher Candidates

Abstract: In response to the call for improving teacher candidates' familiarity with the assessment tasks and format of the edTPA (Hildebrandt & Swanson, 2014), this single case study investigated the reflective writing development of Jena, a K–12 Spanish teacher candidate, and her evolution in a pedagogy that focused on the development of writing two reflective genres: personal private reflection (PPR) and critical academic reflection (CAR). Findings from functional linguistic analysis provide insights into the impact of explicit instruction in the organizational and linguistic features of CAR and clearly differentiate it in function and purpose from PPR. The linguistic analysis is supported by qualitative data regarding Jena's writing development and her performance on the edTPA. Data suggest that further research could investigate the positioning of PPR as a resource for developing CAR in ways that value the contribution of each type of writing in supporting the development of teacher candidates as individuals and as professionals.

Supporting the Professional Development of Foreign Language Graduate Students: A Focus on Course Development and Program Direction.

Abstract: The 2007 Modern Language Association report spurred research regarding the professional development of foreign language graduate students. This article first reviews existing proposals for the professional development of graduate students, then addresses the relevance of helping graduate students to develop the knowledge and skills that are needed to direct undergraduate language programs, describes a course on this topic, and reports the results of end-of-semester course evaluations completed by students.Key words: graduate student professional development, language program direction, pedagogy, TA training and supervision, university foreign/second language teacher preparationIntroductionThe 2007 Modern Language Association (MLA) report offered a range of proposals for curricular and structural changes designed to improve student learning in postsecondary foreign language departments. Among these recommendations, the MLA report stated, "To meet the needs of undergraduate language programs (which is where the majority of PhD candidates will find employment), graduate studies should provide substantive training in language teaching" (MLA, 2007 p. 7). Similarly, Olsen (1998) stated, "[g]raduate departments could enhance the competitive strength of their graduates by meeting the needs of the bread-and-butter positions" (p. 502), and Rifkin (2001) noted that providing more systematized professional development may increase graduate students' chances of acquiring a secure faculty position. Pfeiffer (2002) pointed out thatMany teaching positions are not located in the same type of research-oriented graduate departments in which graduate students get socialized.... Therefore, graduate students need to be equipped to respond productively to the variable needs of foreign language departments in a range of institutional environments. (p. 14)Pfeiffer (2008) and Schechtman and Koser (2008) reiterated this call for change in the professional development of graduate students, many of whom will be future professors and program directors in foreign language departments, and Paesani and Allen (2012) also echoed this call. As Schechtman and Koser continued to explain, graduate programs must begin to think differently about the value placed on professional development: "Graduate students...need to be presented with models that place equal value on preparation for teaching and research" (p. 311). More recently, in their comprehensive review, Allen and Negueruela-Azarola (2010) also highlighted the need for reform of graduate student professional development at the departmental level, which may be especially needed since, as Laurence (2013) stated, full-time tenure-track positions have become increasingly more difficult to obtain, due in part to the increased hiring of temporary or contingent instructors. Therefore, providing graduate students withmore continuous and structured opportunities for professional developmentmay be critical to increasing their job opportunities. In fact, as Pfeiffer (2002) explained, involving graduate students in discussions about teaching and mentoring "...sends a strong signal about the multiple professional responsibilities faculty members have within the department. By extension, these are the duties of future faculty members, that is, graduate students" (p. 12). Indeed, as the 2007 MLA report highlighted, faculty members should play an active role "...in shaping and overseeing the content and teaching approaches used throughout the curriculum, from the first year forward" (p. 7). In response to calls for greater emphasis on these aspects of the professional development of graduate students, this article offers a proposal for a graduate professional development course focusing on undergraduate language program direction and course development, and reports quantitative and qualitative survey data fromend-of-semester evaluations from students who recently took this course. …

Using a Corpus in a 300-level Spanish grammar course

Abstract: The present study examined the use and effectiveness of a large corpus- the Corpus del Espan~ ol (Davies, 2002)-in a 300-level Spanish grammar university course. Students conducted hands-on corpus searches with the goal of finding concordances containing particular types of collocations (combinations of words that tend to co-occur) and tokens (any occurrence of a word or sequence of words), then used these examples from authentic texts in order to better understand and use the grammatical concepts under consideration (e.g., preterite vs. imperfect, ser and estar). The study was designed to better inform language educators' understanding of the extent to which access to, and active use of, a large corpus helped students better understand and use particular grammatical concepts and structures. Qualitative and quantitative data obtained from a student survey offer evidence that the corpus was an effective learning tool and represented an innovative use of technology.Key words: Spanish, concordances, corpora, corpus searches, grammatical rulesIntroductionA corpus is a searchable collection of naturally occurring, authentic texts that are stored electronically and usually made accessible online (see Reppen, 2010). Corpora were first created for the purpose of studying linguistic phenomena (McEnery & Hardie, 2013); large corpora - that is, corpora consisting of millions of words - provide a particularly important reference and learning tool because they offer examples of actual language use across a wide range and number of authentic texts that cannot, in most cases, be obtained otherwise (see Liu & Jiang, 2009). Specifically, neither grammar books, dictionaries (see Tsui, 2004), textbooks, research articles, or even corpus-based grammars (see Bernardini, 2004) provide sufficient breadth and depth of authentic texts, excerpts of sufficient length, or even sufficient sample sentences, to provide the required array of examples that learners need to develop a more nuanced sense of the range of correct, real-world ways in which grammar can be used to convey meaning. Since even in upper-level courses students, including relatively proficient heritage and even native speakers, may be unsure about the fine differences in meaning that are conveyed by differing linguistic choices, corpus searches allow students to use authentic linguistic evidence to verify for themselves the accuracy of the grammar explanations and examples that are provided in a textbook, formulate grammatical rules and exceptions to those rules, find alternate or divergent uses of a range of grammatical structures, and make reasoned choices to perfect their understanding of the relationship between form and meaning.The present study examined the use and effectiveness of a large corpus-the Corpus del Espa~nol (Davies, 2002) by students in a 300-level, one-semester grammar course in Spanish. The study was designed to inform language educators' understanding of the extent to which access to, and active use of, a large corpus helped students refine their knowledge and use of particular grammatical concepts and structures (e.g., preterite vs. imperfect, ser and estar), as well as render more correct and nuanced both their speech and their writing.Review of LiteratureThere is a growing body of literature on the use of corpora for language teaching, although most of the studies have addressed the use of corpora in English as a second or foreign language (ESL or EFL) classes.1 A number of studies have examined the use of corpora to explore tokens (any occurrence in a corpus of a word or sequence of words) as well as collocations, commonly occurring groups of words, to determine their use and positioning across a range of authentic texts. For example, Liu and Jiang (2009) examined the effects of incorporating corpus and contextualized lexicogrammar2 (e.g., how the words disinterested and uninterested differ in their structural usage patterns) in the teaching of EFL and ESL in one Chinese university and two U. …

The Role of Motivation and Learner Variables in L1 and L2 Vocabulary Development in Japanese Heritage Language Speakers in the United States

Abstract: This study investigates the role of motivation and learner variables in bilingual vocabulary development among first language (L1) Japanese students attending hoshuukoo (i.e., supplementary academic schools for Japanese-speaking children) in the United States. One hundred sixteen high school students ages 15–18 from eight hoshuukoo completed Japanese and English vocabulary tests and a student characteristics questionnaire. A principal component analysis identified six motivational factors: preference for Japan, Japanese heritage, no choice, career orientation, American identity, and positive perceptions. The students highly rated career orientation, positive perceptions, and Japanese heritage as reasons to learn both languages. Regression analysis revealed negative effects of American identity and career orientation on L1 Japanese vocabulary knowledge and a positive impact of positive perceptions on second language (L2) English proficiency. The students' college plans were highly related to the motivational factor of preference for Japan. In sum, bilingual competence can be related to motivational factors, and individual differences in bilingual proficiency among young learners of Japanese as a heritage language can be, at least partially, accounted for by socio-psychological factors.

Middle School Foreign Language Instruction: A Missed Opportunity?

Abstract: Multiple studies conducted over the past decade have suggested the motivational and proficiency-related benefits of commencing language instruction at an early age. Limitations in many of these studies, however, have prevented their results from being applied to the teaching of foreign languages in the United States. In response to calls for further studies examining the possible benefits of early-start foreign language instruction, the researchers used a mixed methodology to compare the oral proficiency and motivation of two groups of foreign language learners studying Level II French, German, Spanish, or Mandarin. One group consisted of primarily 14-year-old students who began their foreign language studies in middle school, and the other included 15- and 16-year-olds who postponed the onset of their foreign language instruction until high school. Quantitative and qualitative data collected from student surveys, tests scores, and individual interviews suggested both proficiency-related and motivational benefits of commencing language instruction at an early age. Equipped with these much-needed results, foreign language stakeholders should renew their argument to expand early-start foreign language programs in K–12 schools in the United States and to remove the optional nature of foreign language instruction at the middle school level.