Showing papers in "International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis in 1993"

The Waterloo-Stanford Group C (WSGC) Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility: Normative and Comparative Data

Abstract: The Waterloo-Stanford Group C (WSGC) hypnotic susceptibility scale was developed as a substitute for the individually administered Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C (SHSS:C). A first investigation with WSGC reports normative data on 259 subjects, and the results indicate that it is comparable in most important respects to the norms of SHSS:C. A second investigation directly compared WSGC and SHSS:C in a counterbalanced design on 65 subjects, and the two scales correlated .85. It is argued that, when used as a follow-up to the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A, WSGC provides a valid criterion of hypnotic ability.

Hypnotizability and Facets of Openness

Abstract: Absorption, a correlate of hypnotizability, is related to a broader dimension of openness to experience, one construal of the “Big Five” structure of personality. But openness itself is very heterogeneous, and some of its facets may be unrelated to hypnotizability. A total of 651 subjects completed a questionnaire measuring three different aspects of openness—absorption, intellectance, and liberalism—before receiving the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A. The three dimensions were only modestly related to each other, and only absorption was significantly related to hypnotizability. Adding intellectance and liberalism to absorption did not enhance the prediction of hypnotizability. The results indicate that the various facets of openness are rather different from each other and that the “Big Five” structure may need to be expanded. Absorption and hypnosis share a kind of imaginative involvement that is not necessarily part of other kinds of openness, such as intellectance and ...

Direct Versus Indirect Suggestions: A Conceptual and Methodological Review

Abstract: The article reviews the literature on the effects of direct versus indirect hypnotic suggestions. A conceptual and methodological analysis of direct versus indirect suggestions is also provided. Three conclusions follow from the review: (a) Contrary to views of Ericksonian hypnotists, suggestion style has little effect on objective responding to hypnotic test items; (b) studies of clinical- and laboratory-induced pain and other measures of subjective experience have yielded contradictory results—however, the best controlled studies have not indicated that indirect suggestions are superior to direct suggestions; and (c) there is insufficient evidence to conclude that hypnotizability level and suggestion wording interact, such that low hypnotizable subjects are particularly responsive to indirect suggestions. Methodological and conceptual problems in defining and studying hypnotic communications, the lack of rigorous experimental controls, and research issues and directions are highlighted.

The hypnosis scales at their centenary: some fundamental issues still unresolved.

Abstract: Current approaches to the measurement of hypnotic performance can be traced back to the 19th century. In part because of these early origins and in part because of the nature of hypnotic phenomena, the hypnosis scales are unique psychometric instruments. The classic hypnosis scales are based on the notion of a "performance ladder"; items are scored on a pass/fail basis and can be arranged in increasing order of difficulty. Some of the implications on this "performance ladder" approach are reviewed. The evidence for two-mechanism models of hypnotic performance is reviewed. It is argued that this kind of formulation is at least as plausible as one that argues that the hypnosis scales measure "one thing" or "mostly one thing." If it were the case that the hypnosis scales were tapping two different and distinct processes, the label "hypnotic susceptibility" could not be unambiguously applied to scores on the hypnosis scales. The hypnosis scales would appear well-suited to the investigation of underlying mechanisms, yet no consistent picture of the mechanisms underlying hypnotic performance on the scales has emerged thus far. No resolution is presented, but some of the reasons why such a resolution is so elusive are discussed. The future of hypnosis scales is discussed with respect to multidimensional assessment and alternatives to the "work sample" approach.

Hypnotic assessment and treatment of trauma-induced psychoses: the early psychotherapy of H. Breukink and modern views.

Abstract: The role of hypnotizability assessment in the differential diagnosis of psychotic patients is still unresolved. In this article, the pioneering work of Dutch psychiatrist H. Breukink (1860-1928) during the 1920s is used as early evidence that hypnotic capacity is clinically helpful in differentiating highly hypnotizable psychotic patients with dissociative symptomatology from schizophrenics. Furthermore, there is a long tradition of employing hypnotic capacity in the treatment of these dissociative psychoses. The ways in which Breukink used hypnosis for diagnostic, prognostic, and treatment purposes are summarized and discussed in light of both old and current views. He felt that hysterical psychosis was trauma-induced, certainly curable, and that psychotherapy using hypnosis was the treatment of choice. Hypnosis was used for symptom-oriented therapy, as a comfortable and supportive mental state, and for the uncovering and integrating of traumatic memories. For the latter purpose, Breukink emphasized a calm mental state, both in hypnosis and in the waking state, thereby discouraging emotional expression, which he considered dangerous in psychotic patients. In the discussion, special attention is paid to the role and dangers of the expression of trauma-related emotions.

The Phenomenology of the Experiences and the Depth of Hypnosis: Comparison of Direct and Indirect Induction Techniques

Abstract: The effect of two hypnotic induction styles on subjective experience was measured in an experiment in which 44 subjects participated in both traditional direct hypnosis, induced by the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form A, and indirect hypnosis (presented in counterbalanced order), followed by 4 minutes of rest before dehypnosis. The depth of hypnosis was measured retrospectively by a subjective scale, and the structure of experiences was measured by the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory. Subjects were subsequently administered the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form B, so that awareness of their hypnotizability would not affect their subjective depth reports. No differences were found in a comparison of subjects' structure of experiences in direct and indirect hypnosis. In addition, low and medium hypnotizable subjects reported indirect hypnosis as deeper. This may reflect the possibility that while hypnotized different mechanisms come into play for subjects high in hypnotizability compared to those who are less hypnotizable.

Response expectancy as a mediator of hypnotizability modification: a brief communication.

Abstract: The role of response expectancy in bringing about increases in hypnotic susceptibility by use of the Carleton Skill Training Program (CSTP) was assessed with 27 subjects selected for their low hypnotizability scores. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: 13 received the CSTP to increase their hypnotic susceptibility, and 14 received no training. In addition to assessing hypnotizability, hypnotic response expectancies were assessed before and after training. With pretreatment hypnotizability controlled, subjects in the training group scored significantly higher than control subjects on all self-report measures of hypnotizability but not on a measure of observed behavioral response. Changes in response expectancy were found to be highly correlated with changes in hypnotizability. With changes in expectancy controlled, no significant differences between the trained and control groups were found.

Multiple Personality Disorder and Iatrogenesis: The Cautionary Tale of Anna O

Abstract: An examination of Breuer's treatment of Anna O. illustrates some of the controversies surrounding the recent rise of case reports of multiple personality disorder. Anna O., the first patient of the cathartic method, psychoanalysis, and dynamic psychiatry, fits current criteria for multiple personality disorder. Breuer's treatment, however, may have contributed to her states of absence; the timing, type, and intensity of Breuer's interventions make it possible that he unwittingly encouraged and amplified Anna's dissociations, reified her ego fragments, and then explained Anna's symptoms with the pseudomemories and confabulations recovered from Anna while she was hypnotized. A review of Breuer's treatment highlights some of the controversial aspects of multiple personality disorder, specifically its possible vulnerability to iatrogenesis via suggestion and unconscious collusion and other factors. The current stance of some multiple personality disorder enthusiasts, opaque to their participation in ...

The Carleton Skills Training Package for modifying hypnotic susceptibility--a replication and extension: a brief communication.

Abstract: This study employed the Carleton Skills Training Package (CSTP) to attempt to enhance both objective and subjective components of hypnotic susceptibility. In addition, changes in susceptibility were compared for subjects administered a standard hypnotic induction procedure and for subjects given brief "place yourself in hypnosis" instructions. Results indicated that subjects who were administered the CSTP exhibited significant gains in both objective and subjective susceptibility scores that were maintained at two separate posttests with different scales. No differences were observed between the groups administered the standard induction and those administered the self-induction instructions.

Hypnosis and attention deficits after closed head injury.

Abstract: In a controlled study of patients attending a concussion clinic because of ongoing postconcussion symptoms, attention deficits were recorded in the head-injured group for the aspects of alertness, assessed by the Continuous Performance Test (CPT), and processing capacity, assessed by a version of the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test (PASAT). Selective attention was intact. Hypnotizability was assessed by the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A (HGSHS:A), with normal means and standard deviations found in both the concussed and control groups. There was a significant correlation, however, between HGSHS:A scores and PASAT scores in the concussed group only. The results of this preliminary study suggest that slower processing capacity after a closed head injury may predict higher hypnotizability and that hypnosis could be an appropriate rehabilitation technique for these patients who present with postconcussion symptoms.

The effects of cue level, hypnotizability, and state instruction on responses to leading questions.

Abstract: Two sessions were conducted in which independent groups of 86 high- and 85 low-susceptible subjects, responding individually under waking or hypnotic instruction, answered high- and low-cued leading questions about a video event that depicted shooting at an airport. The two sessions were separated by 1 week, and the same questions were asked in both sessions. It was predicted that highly susceptible subjects responding under hypnotic instruction would show the most evidence of accepting false information via strongly cued leading questions. Results showed general effects for leading questions and level of susceptibility but no firm support for the involvement of hypnosis. Data are discussed in terms of both the linguistic and social factors that appear to have operated on subjects in the study, results overall highlight the strong influence of level of susceptibility on subjects’ acceptance of false information.

Hypnotic Susceptibility and the Endogenous Eyeblink: A Brief Communication

Abstract: This study investigated the relationship between hypnotic susceptibility, hypnotic state, and the endogenous eyeblink with 36 undergraduates, who were assigned to four independent groups (waking-low, hypnotized-low, waking-high, and hypnotized-high susceptibles) on the basis of combined cutoff scores on both the Creative Imagination Scale and the Stanford Hypnotic Clinical Scale for Adults. The auditory vigilance task required subjects to discriminate between 200 ms and 300 ms tones over a 35-minute period. Hypnotic depth was controlled across trials using the Long Stanford Scale of Hypnotic Depth. As predicted, high-susceptible subjects had a significantly lower blink rate than low-susceptible subjects. The predicted interaction between susceptibility and hypnotic state was also confirmed. High-susceptible subjects showed a significant decrease in blinking for the hypnotized condition, whereas low-susceptible subjects did not. The need for replication with more adequate measures of susceptibilit...

Assessment of Hypnotic Processes and Responsiveness in a Clinical Context

Abstract: The present study was designed to investigate in a clinical situation whether differences in measured hypnotizability validly reflect differences in hypnotic processes and to what extent factors deemed extraneous to hypnosis—such as resistance—influence hypnotic responding. To answer this question, Dutch versions of relevant scales had to first be developed. The factorial validity and reliability of a Dutch translation of the Resistance Toward Hypnosis Scale (DRHS) and a shortened Dutch version of the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (DPCI) were investigated in a sample of 205 psychiatric patients. The DRHS proved to be factorially valid and reliable, and two subscales, Trance and Reality Orientation, derived empirically from the DPCI showed good to satisfactory reliability. In a second study with a subsample of 99 psychiatric patients, hypnotizability as measured by the Stanford Hypnotic Clinical Scale for Adults was strongly and positively related to DPCI Trance scores and moderately an...

The Effects of Direct Versus Indirect Hypnotic Suggestion on Pain in a Cold Pressor Task

Abstract: Past studies have investigated the usefulness of hypnosis in pain reduction. Although hypnotic analgesia has been found to be effective, it is generally only those subjects who are highly susceptible to hypnosis who benefit. Some experimenters have found that even low-susceptible subjects can use hypnotic analgesia, if the hypnotic induction uses indirect rather than direct hypnotic suggestions. In the present study, high- and low-susceptible subjects were tested for analgesia using either direct or indirect hypnotic suggestion on pain in a cold pressor task. Findings suggest that high susceptibles experience greater pain reduction than do low susceptibles. However, no significant differences were found between the pain reduction in the direct versus the indirect hypnotic suggestion groups. Possible explanations for this lack of differences are discussed.

History of Research Centers and Professional Hypnosis Societies in the United States

Abstract: The brief history of hypnosis in America begins with William James's chapter in his Principles of Psychology that got hypnosis off to a good start as a legitimate part of psychology In the 20th century, before World War II, the idea of performing scientific investigations of hypnosis took place at Harvard University through William McDougall, at the University of Wisconsin and Yale University under Clark Hull, and, in its clinical aspects particularly, through the personal efforts of Milton H Erickson The resurgence after World War II is related to the use of hypnosis with war casualties during the war and with the development of clinical psychology The aspects of the history emphasized here are the founding of continuing institutes and research centers, some theoretical cleavages that have persisted to this day, and the establishment of hypnosis societies with their journals, annual meetings, and workshops, including an International Society of Hypnosis The history of Division 30 within the

An analysis of hypnotherapist-client sexual intimacy

Abstract: While sexual interaction between psychologists, physicians, and other health therapists of all kinds and their clients is typically condemned by professional bodies as unethical, the controversy regarding the potential for hypnosis to produce compliant behavior in unwilling or nonconsenting subjects suggests that hypnotherapist-client sex may warrant special attention. Because the experiments required to clarify the potential for hypnosis to potentiate nontrivial compliance are themselves unethical and/or inconclusive, experimental methods cannot be adequately used to clarify this issue. Instead, the matter can be addressed by reference to other forms of evidence, such as the responses of therapists and clients to anonymous surveys and the analysis of cases, that have reached the courts. Consideration of this qualitatively deficient evidence suggests that even if the use of hypnotic suggestion can lead to compliance to sexual demands, overt coercion is seldom used in practice. Social psychological and situational factors are particularly salient in understanding therapist-client sex. The question of whether there are special properties of the dynamics of the hypnotic experience, other than specific coercive suggestion and beyond those typically found in other forms of therapy, is considered. Comparisons are drawn with other examples of socially condemned sex, such as teacher-student sex, sexual harassment in the workplace, incest, and extramarital sex.

Use of hypnosis following training in a psychiatry residency and psychology internship program: a brief communication.

Abstract: Despite growing numbers of internships and residencies offering training in hypnotherapy, no systematic attempt has been made to assess hypnotherapy beliefs and use among former trainees in these settings. This study investigated posttraining hypnotherapy use and effectiveness beliefs in a sample of 77 former psychiatry residents and psychology interns. Over 50% of the study sample had sought additional hypnotherapy training beyond the standard lectures and seminars, and almost 30% had attended external hypnotherapy workshops or presentations. Beliefs in hypnotherapy effectiveness were high, but use of hypnotherapy in clinical practice was very low. Former residents and interns who had received supervised training with patients, who had attended hypnosis workshops, and who had a colleague using hypnotherapy were more likely to use hypnotherapy following training.

The history of the founding of the Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis: a brief communication.

Abstract: An account of the founding of the Society for Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis during the years 1949 to 1956 is presented with details of its early development, purposes, and functions. The Society gave rise to the International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, the International Society of Hypnosis, and the American Boards of Medical Hypnosis, Psychology, and Dentistry.

A question of filling in the gaps: a master class commentary.

Abstract: “Judy,” a professional writer, asked me to use hypnosis to help her “fill in the gaps” in her knowledge of certain periods in her youth. As she was so keen, getting her into trance was relatively easy. I asked a few questions and she answered in a slurred voice. Then, after a few minutes, she said that she wasn't hypnotized. “Not to worry, Judy, I'll bring you out” was my reply. With that, a flood of memories, absolutely unstoppable for approximately 4 minutes, came pouring forth. There-after, I asked questions relating to an earlier period in her life. Again came the statement that she wasn't hypnotized, and I replied as before. With that, a second flood of unstoppable experiences poured forth. Later, on coming out of trance, she was able to recall all she'd spoken about while in trance and often punctuated her recollections with “I didn't know that they punished me at 6 by locking me in the cupboard under the stairs!”

The Clinical Role of Responsivity Tests: A Master Class Commentary

Abstract: What is the proper role of hypnotic responsivity tests in the clinical context? If a patient demonstrates a low score, should the clinician proceed to use hypnosis? To what extent should the patient's level of hypnotic responsivity guide the clinical use of hypnosis? If the initial hypnotic response is minimal, should the clinician proceed with the use of hypnosis?