Showing papers in "International Migration in 2001"

The Migration of Professionals: Theories and Typologies

Abstract: In an historical context, highly skilled migration typically involved the forced movement of professionals as a result of political conflicts, followed by the emergence of the “brain drain” in the 1960s. In the current situation, highly skilled migration represents an increasingly large component of global migration streams. The current state of theory in relation to highly skilled migration is far from adequate in terms of explaining what is occurring at the high skill end of the migration spectrum. Continuing growth of temporary skilled migration is heralding changes in the operation of professions. Formal procedures for recognizing the skills of permanent immigrant professionals are breaking down as “fast-track” processes for assessing the skills of temporary professional migrants are put in place. The increasing globalization of firms and the internationalization of higher education are encouraging professions to internationalize. In this article, four professions are cited as case studies to show that professional inclusion/exclusion is no longer defined by national professional bodies alone. The operation of professions has become a transnational matter although the extent of internationalization varies with professions. Typologies for analysing professional migration flows are discussed and a sixth means of categorization, by profession or industry, is introduced to allow for the nature of interactions between the market, the state and the profession/industry. The question whether states should continue to be concerned about self-sufficiency in national professional labour markets in an increasingly globalized environment is also addressed.

Network Approach versus Brain Drain: Lessons from the Diaspora

Abstract: For the past two decades, network approaches have led to many conceptual and empirical developments in the studies of international migration as well as of technological innovation. However, surprisingly, such approaches have hardly been used for the study of what is at the intersection of both fields, namely the mobility of highly skilled persons or knowledge workers. This article draws on recent evidence brought by case studies on intellectual diaspora networks to bridge this gap and to explore the issue. These highly skilled expatriate networks, through a connectionist approach linking diaspora members with their countries of origin, turn the brain drain into a brain gain approach. These persons and groups also provide original information that questions conventional human capital based assumptions. The article argues that descriptions in terms of network open interesting perspectives for the understanding as well as management of the current global skills’ circulation. The network approach under consideration combines input from migration as well as from innovation studies. This suggests an expanded version of the network approach, referring to actors and intermediaries, of which traditional kinship ties are but a part of more systematic associative dynamics actually at work.

The Dark Side of Democracy: Migration, Xenophobia and Human Rights in South Africa

Abstract: South Africa prides itself on having one of the most progressive constitutions in the world. The Bill of Rights guarantees a host of basic political, cultural and socio-economic rights to all who are resident in the country. Yet there have been persistent reports that citizen intolerance of non-citizens, refugees and migrants has escalated dramatically since 1994. This article documents this process through presentation of results of national public opinion surveyed by the Southern African Migration Project (SAMP). The surveys show that intolerance is extremely pervasive and growing in intensity and seriousness. Abuse of migrants and refugees has intensified and there is little support for the idea of migrant rights. Only one group of South Africans, a small minority with regular personal contact with non-citizens, is significantly more tolerant. These findings do not augur well for migrant and refugee rights in this newly democratic country, or early acceptance of the UN Convention on the protection of migrant workers.

Europe and the Immigration of Highly Skilled Labour

Abstract: The competition for highly skilled labour continues to be fierce and is taking a more institutionalized pattern across most of the developed world. This article sketches the changes in policies, legislations, and procedures across various EU countries and compares these with those of other developed countries. The article shows that EU member states not only compete with non-EU countries and regions but also among themselves in order to attract and maintain sufficient flows of highly skilled labour.

Shifting Paradigms of Globalization: The Twenty‐first Century Transition Towards Generics in Skilled Migration from India

Abstract: Globalization of human capital through international migration is no longer about global physical presence only; it is also about global applicability of skills across various fields of specialization. This marks the main characteristics of skilled migration from India to developed countries in the twenty-first century. The focus is shifting away from professionals in specific occupations, like doctors, engineers, scientists, architects, bankers, to information technology (IT) professionals embodying, in a way, more generic skills. In other words, it is the generic applicability of information and communications technology (ICT) which has led to large-scale migration of Indians skilled in IT. Moreover, the exodus comprises not only the fully trained and educated workers going abroad for employment, but also students - the semi-finished human capital - pursuing higher education in onshore as well as offshore universities of the developed countries. The new emigration is directed towards traditional host countries in the West such as the UK, Canada, and the US, but also towards newly emerging destinations in continental Europe (Germany, France, Belgium, Italy, Denmark), Australasia (Australia, New Zealand), East Asia (Japan, Republic of Korea), and South-East Asia (Singapore, Malaysia). By using mainly current information and informal data as reported in the media, this article perceives emerging trends and changes in the context of the global labour market for skills, and suggests a possible framework towards evolving strategies of remedial development.

Impact of migration on kerala's economy and society

Abstract: This article reports results of the first migration study covering the entire State of Kerala. It encompasses both measurement as well as analysis of the various types and facets of migration. Migration has been the single most dynamic factor in an otherwise dreary development scenario in Kerala during the last quarter of the twentieth century. Kerala is approaching the end of the millennium with a little cheer in many people's homes as a result of migration which has contributed more to poverty alleviation than any other factor, including agrarian reforms, trade union activities and social welfare legislation. The study shows that nearly 1.5 million Keralites now live outside India. They send home more than Rs.4,000 million a year by way of remittances. Three-quarters of a million former emigrants have come back. They live mostly on savings, work experience, and skills acquired while abroad. More than a million families depend on an internal migrant's earnings for subsistence, children's education and other economic requirements. Whereas the educationally backward Muslims from the Thrissur-Malappuram region provide the backbone of emigration, it is the educationally forward Ezhawas, Nairs and Syrian Christians from the former Travancore-Cochin State who form the core of internal migration. The article also analyses the determinants and consequences of internal and external migration. It offers suggestions for policy formulation directed at optimum utilization of remittances sent home by emigrants and the expertise brought back by the return migrants. Migration in Kerala began with demographic expansion, but it will not end up with demographic contraction. Kerala has still to develop into an internally self-sustaining economy. The prevailing cultural milieu in which its people believe that anything can be achieved through agitation, and any rule can be circumvented with proper political connections, must change and be replaced by a liberalized open economy with strict and definite rules of the game.

Human Rights of Migrants: Challenges of the New Decade

Abstract: This review summarizes main trends, issues, debates, actors and initiatives regarding recognition and extension of protection of the human rights of migrants. Its premise is that the rule of law and universal notions of human rights are essential foundations for democratic society and social peace. Evidence demonstrates that violations of migrants' human rights are so widespread and commonplace that they are a defining feature of international migration today. About 150 million persons live outside their countries; in many States, legal application of human rights norms to non-citizens is inadequate or seriously deficient, especially regarding irregular migrants. Extensive hostility against, abuse of and violence towards migrants and other non-nationals has become much more visible worldwide in recent years. Research, documentation and analysis of the character and extent of problems and of effective remedies remain minimal. Resistance to recognition of migrants' rights is bound up in exploitation of migrants in marginal, low status, inadequately regulated or illegal sectors of economic activity. Unauthorized migrants are often treated as a reserve of flexible labour, outside the protection of labour safety, health, minimum wage and other standards, and easily deportable. Evidence on globalization points to worsening migration pressures in many parts of the world. Processes integral to globalization have intensified disruptive effects of modernization and capitalist development, contributing to economic insecurity and displacement for many. Extension of principles in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights culminated in the 1990 International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families. With little attention, progress in ratifications was very slow until two years ago. A global campaign revived attention; entry into force is likely in 2001. Comparative analysis notes that ILO migrant worker Conventions have generally achieved objectives but States have resisted adoption of any standards on treatment of non-nationals. A counter-offensive against human rights as universal, indivisible and inalienable underlies resistance to extension of human rights protection to migrants. A parallel trend is deliberate association of migration and migrants with criminality. Trafficking has emerged as a global theme contextualizing migration in a framework of combatting organized crime and criminality, subordinating human rights protections to control and anti-crime measures. Intergovernmental cooperation on migration “management” is expanding rapidly, with functioning regional intergovernmental consultative processes in all regions, generally focused on strengthening inter-state cooperation in controlling and preventing irregular migration through improved border controls, information sharing, return agreements and other measures. Efforts to defend human rights of migrants and combat xenophobia remain fragmented, limited in impact and starved of resources. Nonetheless, NGOs in all regions provide orientation, services and assistance to migrants, public education and advocating respect for migrants rights and dignity. Several international initiatives now highlight migrant protection concerns, notably the UN Special Rapporteur on Human Rights of Migrants, the Global Campaign promoting the 1990 UN Convention, UN General Assembly proclamation of International Migrants Day, the 2001 World Conference Against Racism and Xenophobia, anti-discrimination activity by ILO, and training by IOM. Suggestions to governments emphasize the need to define comprehensive, coordinated migration policy and practice based on economic, social and development concerns rather than reactive control measures to ensure beneficial migration, social harmony, and dignified treatment of nationals and non-nationals. NGOs, businesses, trade unions, and religious groups are urged to advocate respect for international standards, professionalize services and capacities, take leadership in opposing xenophobic behaviour, and join international initiatives. Need for increased attention to migrants rights initiatives and inter-agency cooperation by international organizations is also noted.

Family Pressure and the Educational Experience of the Daughters of Vietnamese Refugees

Abstract: This article explores the issue of gender role changes encountered by young Vietnamese-American women based on our ethnographic study of Versailles Village, a low-income ethnic community in New Orleans, US. We examine how female Vietnamese high school students deal with conflicts between the stubborn traditionalism of parents and the desire for personal liberty of American-reared children and how they negotiate gender roles at home and in school and society. Through in-depth examination of the school experience of young Vietnamese women, we find that they not only equal young men in scholastic performance and ambition, but may even show higher levels of achievement. Our data indicate that it is not because the women are liberating themselves from traditional gender roles in order to avail themselves of the opportunities of American society. Instead, the socio-economic conditions of the new land place a new emphasis on education for both men and women. Immigrant families see the importance of education as an avenue of upward mobility for their children and encourage educational achievement. Precisely because traditional gender roles lead families to exercise greater control over daughters, young women are pushed even more than young men toward scholastic performance.

Social, Economic and Demographic Consequences of Migration on Kerala

Abstract: In Kerala migration has contributed more to poverty alleviation and reduction in unemployment than any other factor. As a consequence the State has become dependent on migration for employment subsistence housing household amenities institution building and many other developmental activities. However it is noted that Kerala workers seem to be losing out in international competition for jobs in the Gulf market. Corrective policies are needed urgently to raise their competitive edge over workers in competing countries in South and Southeast Asia. Since the center of the problem is Kerala workers inability to compete with expatriates from other countries the solution lies in equipping workers with better general education and job training. A two-fold approach is suggested: 1) improving the job skills of prospective emigrant workers through ad hoc training programs focused on the job market in Gulf countries and 2) restructuring the educational system taking into consideration the future demand of workers not only in Kerala but also in potential destination countries worldwide.

Trends in Latin American skilled migration: "brain drain" or "brain exchange"?

Abstract: During the last half of the 20th century the Latin American sub-continent historically a region of immigration became one of emigration characterized by intra-regional movements and movements towards the developed world particularly the US. The emigration of highly skilled resources was a new phenomenon in the 1960s and debate on "brain drain" took a significant place in academia and in international organizations. In recent years within the context of intensification of the globalization process and by virtue of the drive for technological development and the subsequent demand for specialization the issue has returned to both the arena of political debate and to the academic world. This article presents an analysis of trends in Latin American migration in the context of the new situation. It discusses whether there is a continuation of the "brain drain" phenomenon or the emergence of the trend towards "brain exchange" or "brain circulation" as appears to be occurring in other parts of the world. (authors)

The Effect of Linguistic Distance and Country of Origin on Immigrant Language Skills: Application to Israel

Abstract: This article is concerned with identifying, for the first time, the separate effects of linguistic distance (language of origin) and country of origin on the destination language proficiency of immigrants. The determinants of Hebrew language proficiency (fluency and literacy) among immigrants in Israel are studied using the 1972 Census of Israel and the Immigration Absorption (panel) Surveys conducted in the 1970s. Country of origin and language of origin matter for proficiency in Hebrew, especially in the longer term. By country of origin, those from North Africa are the least proficient. By language of origin, Arabic speakers are the most proficient, suggesting a small linguistic distance from Hebrew. Immigrants from English-speaking origins are the least proficient in Hebrew. This may reflect a large linguistic distance or, more likely, the unique role of English as the international language, which reduces incentives for investments in Hebrew. Immigrants from dual-language countries of origin are more proficient in Hebrew than those from single language origins.

Migration and Policies in the European Union: Highly Skilled Mobility, Free Movement of Labour and Recognition of Diplomas

Abstract: This article evaluates the relationship between highly skilled mobility (especially by individuals with university-level degrees) and migration policies. Data from the European Union (EU) and Portugal (in particular) provide the empirical basis of the research. EU policies regarding the free circulation of individuals which aim to build the "common market" for economic factors (including labor) are reviewed as are the more specific recognition of diplomas policies for professional and academic purposes and recent levels of international mobility in both the EU and Portugal. The article also enumerates the main obstacles that from a political and legal or social and cultural perspective explain the low mobility revealed by those figures. Obstacles include the broad denial of citizenship rights; the necessity of assuring a means of sustenance; linguistic and technical exigencies for diploma recognition; the social attributes of work (more explicit in the service sector); and the institutional nature of national skilled labor markets. The main exception to the low mobility rule--movements of cadres in the internal labor markets of transnational corporations--together with flows in other multinational organizations are also reviewed. In these migrations are relatively exempt from political constraints and significantly avoid the recognition procedures adopted by the EU. In other words it seems that the entry of highly skilled individuals in a transnational corporation and not their citizenship in a Europe without frontiers is what enables them to achieve effective mobility. (authors)

International Migration and State Sovereignty in an Integrating Europe

Abstract: This article examines the development of migration policy competencies of the European Union (EU) since the 1990s. It pays particular attention to policy framework that developed after the Maastricht and Amsterdam Treaties entered into effect in 1993 and 1999 respectively. In order to chart these developments, the article focuses on five analytical themes that illustrate key trends in EU migration policy. Reasons for and implications of shift from “pillarization” in the Maastricht Treaty to “communitarization” in the Amsterdam Treaty. — Blurring of the distinction between external and internal security. — The role that supranational institutions such as the European Commission are playing (or trying to play) in policy development. — Debates about migrants' rights in an integrating Europe. — Links between migration and EU enlargement. It is argued that far from weakening EU member states or symbolizing some “loss of control”, EU cooperation and integration have thus far helped member states consolidate and reassert their ability to regulate international migration through the use of new EU-level institutional venues. This raises legitimacy issues as the EU moves into politically sensitive policy areas. Although talk of “fortress Europe” is overblown, the EU is likely to face legitimacy challenges on both the “input” (democracy, openness and accountability of decision-making) and “output” (implementation and compliance) elements of decision-making.

Structuration of Indian Information Technology Professionals’ Migration to Australia: An Ethnographic Study

Abstract: Information Technology (IT) is leading to a new form of capital accumulation as is clearly evident in the IT industry. Regardless of its origin and amount, capital can be circulated and accumulated on a global scale, at an unprecedented speed and therefore with extreme volatility. An urgent task of the study of globalization and migration is to understand the international labour system of the “new economy”. This article is an ethnographic study of those agents who have been the main means by which Indian IT professionals move globally. “Body shopping” is the practice whereby a firm recruits IT workers and then farms them out to clients for a particular project, though the firm itself is not involved in the project. The key players in “body shopping” are a series of recruitment agents. They form “agent chains” where they depend on each other and assume different functions in dealing with the market, the state and the workers. “Body shops” rely on ethnic networks. Their practices have led to the emergence of a flexible international labour supply system that benefits some IT professionals but also imposes costs.

The Role of Immigrants in the Italian Labour Market

Abstract: In little more than a decade, Italy has become a country characterized by immigration from abroad. This pattern is far removed from what central-northern European countries experienced during the 1950s and the 1960s. Immigration has not been explicitly demanded by employers, nor has it been ruled by agreements with the immigrants' countries of origin, nor perceived as necessary for the economic system. For all these reasons, immigration has been chaotic and managed in an emergency and approximate way, even though it is deemed useful and is requested by the “informal” as well as the “official” economy. Following presentations of statistics on trends in the phenomenon, three issues are analysed: - how immigrants are integrated into a labour market that has not called them and into circumstances characterized by the absence of public policies to help them in their job search. - whether it is possible to separate regular immigration involved in the “official” market from irregular immigration in the hidden economy, considering advantages of the first and harmful effects of the second for the Italian socio-economic system. - whether it is appropriate to address complementarity between immigrant labour and the national labour force in a country with 2,500,000 unemployed workers and heavy territorial unbalances.

Identity Crisis and Integration : The divergent Attitudes of Iranian Immigrant Men and women towards Integration into Swedish society

Abstract: The main objective of this article is to show the divergent attitudes of Iranian immigrant men and women towards integration into the Swedish society As several studies have shown, Irani

Migration movements from and into Poland in the light of east-west European migration.

Abstract: This article investigates migratory movements from and into Poland before and after the collapse of communism. The character and scale of these movements are of considerable significance not only for politicians and societies in the CEE region but also for European integration. The Polish eastern border is likely to remain one of the few places in Europe where it will be possible to control mobility on the East-West axis. One cannot discuss East-West mobility without discussing the emigration of Poles. Because recent immigration to Poland from the East should also be assessed from the perspective of both Poland and the West the article examines emigration trends from Poland and immigration into Poland as well as the demographic characteristics of migrants. Only official statistical data are considered. Migration pressure from the East induced by the collapse of the system combined with the restricted migration policy of Western Europe towards former USSR countries were conducive to the formation of the Central European buffer zone. Poland is probably the best example of a buffer zone country. From the Western perspective it is also the most important country because the future of East-West migration depends on the extension of the visa regime by Poland. Irrespective of the introduction of new hurdles there will be other ways of channeling the other movement from the East via Poland to the West. Globalization of migration will inevitably increase flows from the East. It is argued that the key to future European migration lies also in the West more specifically in the employment needs of western labor markets. (authors)

Illegal Migrants to Greece and their Choice of Destination

Abstract: Data on illegal migration to Greece have recently become available from the Greek Employment Observatory. This article presents some descriptive characteristics of the migrants, including country of origin, marital status, education, age, profession and place of residence. It also provides an analysis of migrants' choice of location within Greece. The majority of illegal migrants are manual or unskilled workers seeking employment mainly in the agricultural sector or in urban areas. There is substantial differentiation between males and females in terms of age, education, marital status and profession. In a limited sense, the data provide support for the idea of “feminization” of migration flows. Large flows of migrants are directed to the urban centres but migration as a proportion of county populations is not higher for the big urban centres (Athens and Thessaloniki) than for others. Migrants' choice of place of residence are not affected by the rate of unemployment. Males are attracted to areas with significant agricultural production and females to urban centres. Females are willing to travel longer distances in order to find employment, but for males distance is an insignificant factor. Per capita gross domestic product is an important factor only when migration flows are measured as a proportion of the population. Although the analysis does not justify strong policy statements, it indirectly provides some basis for arguing that allowing or tolerating illegal migration is not the best policy from the point of view of national interest.

International Migration Policies: 1950‐2000

Abstract: Policies on international migration since the Second World War reflect the enormous changes in economic, social and political situations around the world. The implications of changes in the volume and composition of international migration have increasingly become an issue of major concern to governments in all countries. Following emigration from Europe to countries of the New World as a result of war-damaged economies, reconstruction witnessed high demand for migrant labour, mainly from parts of southern Europe. But by the early 1970s, decline in economic growth, unexpected impacts of the guest-worker scheme, and an increase in refugees from Third World countries led, in due course, to an era of restriction on entry of asylum-seekers and tighter controls over undocumented migration to developed countries. A “new era” evolved during the 1990s, characterized by growing interdependence of major economic powers. Globalization led not only to a significant demand for highly-skilled and professional workers, but also to decision-making on some aspects of the migration process being transferred from the national to the regional level, and an increase in the influence of multinational corporations. The globalization process, and the growing influence of international trade regimes, may well represent the first steps towards a new “international migration regime” that incorporates all types of migration.

Regional Organizations and Intra‐Regional Migration in Sub‐Saharan Africa: Challenges and Prospects

Abstract: Africa is a region of diverse migration circuits relating to origin destination and transit for labor migrants undocumented migrants refugees and brain circulation of professionals. This article outlines major migration configurations in the region and the role of two vibrant subregional organizations--Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and South African Development Community (SADC)--in facilitating containing or curtailing intra-regional migration which takes place within diverse political economic social and ethnic contexts; the transformation of brain drain into brain circulation; and commercial migration in place of labor migration within the region. Despite overlapping membership wavering political support a poor transportation network border disputes and expulsions these subregional organizations are crucial for the regions collective integration into the global economy and to enhance economic growth and facilitate labor intraregional migration. Free movement of person without visa adoption of ECOWAS travelers checks and passports the creation of a borderless Community; and the granting of voting rights and later citizenship and residence permits by South Africa to migrant workers from SADC countries are positive developments. These organizations need to foster cooperation between labor-exporting and recipient countries implement the protocols on the right of residence and establishment; promote dialogue and cooperation in order to harmonize coordinate and integrate their migration policies as envisioned by the 1991 Abuja Treaty establishing the African Economic Community. (authors)

New approaches to asylum

Abstract: Since its inception 50 years ago the international asylum regime has shifted through a series of discernibly different approaches. The most recent approach has been characterized by restrictions on asylum-seekers manifested initially through a reluctance to grant asylum and today through a reluctance even to admit asylum-seekers. There is now a growing consensus that this approach is unsustainable. States are recognizing that restrictions have not fulfilled their original aims of reducing the number of asylum-seekers and furthermore have had unintended consequences that include the growth of human smuggling and trafficking. UN High Commission for Refugees is concerned about the erosion of the entire concept of asylum. Asylum advocates nongovernmental organizations and human rights activists argue that restrictions have impacted as heavily on those who need international protection as on those who do not. As a result a wide range of new initiatives are being proposed which may pave the way for the evolution of a new approach to asylum. This article analyzes the evolution of restrictions in the asylum regime explains the failing of this approach and finally reviews possible ways forward. (authors)

Issues and Challenges of Emigration Dynamics in Developing Countries

Abstract: This article is a theory-based attempt to present the issues and challenges of emigration dynamics in developing countries. The topic is discussed within several basic assumptions: first that emigration dynamics in developing countries have certain features that are different from those in developed countries; second that countries in the regions covered by the study (sub-Saharan Africa Central America and the Caribbean and South Asia) are representative of developing countries. The article has been considerably facilitated by two recently concluded and reported projects: the International Organization for Migration/UN Population Fund project "Emigration dynamics in developing countries: sub-Saharan Africa Central America and the Caribbean and South Asia" and the UAP/CEIFO project "International migration in and from Africa: dimensions challenges and prospects". Any serious academic study of emigration dynamics in developing countries must acknowledge these landmark scholarly studies if they hope to advance understanding of the essential features of emigration dynamics in developing countries. A prime objective of the present article is to focus attention on aspects of the emigration process that will enable policy makers to utilize emigration for development especially through national and international cooperation at regional and global levels. The article is predicated upon the need for a theory or model of emigration dynamics in developing countries that meets both internal and external dimensions. The adequacy of such a theory can be measured at three different levels: observation description and explanation. (authors)

Skilled Immigrants in Rome

Abstract: Skilled migration, taking the forms of brain drain, movements of professionals and job transfers, has become an important component of contemporary migration flows. However, it does not necessarily follow that incoming flows of highly qualified immigrants automatically translate into an effective supply of skilled labour, since immigrants are often prepared to accept underemployment and working conditions that nationals from the local market have refused. This study aims to verify whether the phenomenon of brain waste exists in Rome. We analysed the data of 147,587 foreigners recorded in the City Register Office as being residents on 31 August 1999. Of these, 68,539 indicated their educational level and 73,746 their occupation. The data also revealed that the more stable segment of immigrants to Rome, i.e. those who have taken up residency, is composed mainly of qualified, or highly qualified, persons. Many foreign residents possess university degrees and are employed in managerial and/or intellectual professions. Alongside this important datum, however, we observe that the majority of foreign residents are employed in unqualified jobs, a considerable percentage of whom possess much higher qualifications than those required for the job they do. Analysing the temporal evolution of these data on the qualifications and professions of foreign residents leads us to believe that the phenomenon of underemployment is decidedly on the upturn. In order to understand the cause of this phenomenon, qualitative data from case study interviews have also been analysed. The most common reason why immigrants take on under-skilled jobs is lack of job offers appropriate to their academic or professional qualifications due to the peculiar situation of the Roman labour market. Other problems, such as the lack of protocols concerning the recognition of the academic qualifications of non-EU citizens and the language barrier, also play a role.

Socio-economic Development and International Migration: A Turkish Study

Abstract: The root causes of international migration have been the subject of many studies a vast majority of which are based on development theories dominated by economy-oriented perspectives. An underlying assumption is that poverty breeds migration. The results and the conclusions drawn from these studies differ widely. For instance whether emigration increases when poverty becomes more extreme or less extreme or why it reaches certain levels are issues on which research still offers a mixed answer. This article investigates the relationship between economic development and migration by taking into consideration the degrees of economic development that form thresholds for migration. It focuses on recent evidence on the development-emigration relationship in Turkey which reflects a dimension of the dynamics and mechanisms facilitating or restricting migratory flows from the country. Using data from the 1995 District-level Socioeconomic Development Index of Turkey and the 1990 Census the principal aim of the article is to provide an analytical base which identifies degrees of local level of development in Turkey relate these to international migration flows and examine patterns of the development-migration relationship. (authors)

The Context of Spouse Migration to Australia

Abstract: The article discusses five types of spouse migration. Data on the country of origin of migrant spouses and their sponsoring partners suggest that the largest component of spouse migration is chain migration for marriage, with previous immigrants sponsoring partners from their former home country. Other smaller components are sponsorship of spouses by the second generation from the parents' country of origin; sponsorship of foreign spouses by Australians for intermarriage; and family reunion of spouses separated by refugee movements. Spouse migration from English-speaking or European countries is often motivated by a preference for Australia's climate or lifestyle rather than marriage to an Australian partner, unlike spouse migration from other parts of the world where the process is more closely related to marriage.

Principles of Protection for Internally Displaced Persons

Abstract: For forced migrants who have not left their country but are internally displaced persons, human rights law provides an important framework through which to analyse and address their plight. Two principal reasons underpin this assertion. First, owing to the compelling need: human rights violations cut across all phases of internal displacement, causing its occurrence, characterizing the conditions of physical insecurity and material deprivation in which the internally displaced often find themselves, and impeding equitable and lasting solutions. Second, as internally displaced persons remain within the territory of their state, refugee law does not apply and, instead, human rights law provides the fundamental basis for addressing their plight. In addition to human rights law, other standards of international law are also relevant, namely international humanitarian law when displacement occurs in situations of armed conflict and refugee law by analogy. Drawing on these three standards of international law, Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement have been developed which set out what protection should mean for internally displaced persons in all phases of displacement. This article traces the origins and provides an overview of the content of the Guiding Principles, the text of which is reproduced in full in the Appendix.

Some Migration Dynamics Specific to Southern Europe: South‐North and East‐West Axis

Abstract: This article examines the magnitude and determinants of migration from east to west (Europe) following the collapse of communism, and from south (Africa) to north (Europe). Special attention is given to assessing numbers and characteristics (including illegal) of the flows, and also to reasons for and success of bilateral agreements and cooperative projects by the governments of Italy and Spain designed to check and control the flows. Notwithstanding tighter controls on visas for Third World nationals, migration to western Europe does not seem to have abated. In Italy, illegal migration from the east (Albania in particular) is connected, directly or indirectly, with the criminal underworld. The inventory of legal texts and agreement protocols between Spain and Morocco designed to resolve many issues relating to migration, reflect long-standing relations between the two countries. Political and economic relations between Italy and Albania, on the other hand, have developed only within the framework of recent policies. While the presence of Moroccans in Spain and Albanians in Italy is not yet demographically significant, the authors predict that, in the absence of further appropriate political and economic measures, numbers will increase.

The Jewish Exodus from the New South Africa: Realities and Implications

Abstract: In the 1990s, the Jewish population of South Africa declined at an unprecedented rate in marked contrast to Jewish populations in other Englishspeaking countries. Possible explanations include fear of political instability and political violence, deteriorating economic conditions and prospects, fear of directly discriminatory government policies, rising violent crime rates, and more permissive immigration policies in desirable destination countries. All but the last of these factors appear to have played some role. However, only changes in violent crime rates provide an explanation for the unprecedented surge in net emigration, persisting even after a successful political and economic transition to majority black rule under moderate African National Congress governments. Changes in crime rates also provide the most satisfactory explanation for related changes in internal migration patterns.

Protection of Migrants' Human Rights: Principles and Practice

Abstract: In principle, migrants enjoy the protection of international law. Key human rights instruments oblige the States Parties to extend their protection to all human beings. Such important treaties as the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights have been ratified by more than 140 states, but many political, social or economic obstacles seem to stand in the way of offering those rights to migrants. In an attempt to bridge this protection gap, the more specifically targeted International Convention on the Protection of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families was created and adopted by the United Nations in 1990. This treaty is not yet in force, but the number of States Parties is increasing towards the required 20. In the past few years the human rights machinery of the United Nations has increased its attention towards migrants' human rights, appointing in 1999 the Special Rapporteur on the Human Rights of Migrants. Governments, as the acceding parties to international human rights instruments, remain the principal actors as guardians of the human rights of all individuals residing in their territories. Receiving countries are in a key position in the protection of the migrants that they host. However, active defence of migrants' rights is politically difficult in many countries where anti-immigrant factions are influential. Trafficking in migrants is one example of the complexity faced by states in formulating their migration policies. On the one hand, trafficking has made governments increasingly act together and combine both enforcement and protection. On the other, trafficking, with its easily acceptable human rights concerns, is often separated from the more migration-related human smuggling. The latter is a more contentious issue, related also to unofficial interests in utilizing cheap undocumented immigrant labour.

Replacement Migration: the wave of the future?

Abstract: The Population Division of the United Nations issued a report in 1999 on using migration to counteract the effects of low fertility on population size and ageing. The report looked at eight industrial countries and two regions, Europe and the European Union. Using population projections, the analysts estimated the amount of migration necessary to maintain both labour forces and the ratios of workers to retirees at a constant level. This article agrees with the report that substituting migration for low fertility requires politically insupportable levels of migration. The article also concludes that the labour force and retirement financing outlook is not as dire as the UN report insinuates.