Showing papers in "Journal of Social Issues in 1992"
TL;DR: The authors argue that, while individuals perceive risks and have concerns, it is culture that provides socially constructed myths about nature, systems of belief that are reshaped and internalized by persons, becoming part of their worldview and influencing their interpretation of natural phenomena.
Abstract: Western cultures are engaged in a highly contentious debate involving the identification, assessment, and management of risks to the environment and to public health and safety. Daily claims of new dangers in the food, air, and water we consume, the chemicals, energy, and substances we use, and the products, processes, and artifacts that support us are exacerbating public fears regarding environmental and health hazards. Most research on the perception and communication of risk has focused on possible harms, largely ignoring the cultural contexts in which hazards are framed and debated, and in which risk taking and risk perception occur. This article argues that, while individuals perceive risks and have concerns, it is culture that provides socially constructed myths about nature—systems of belief that are reshaped and internalized by persons, becoming part of their worldview and influencing their interpretation of natural phenomena.
539 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors propose a multidimensional notion of trust, including cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects, involving themes of expectations about others, subjective perceptions of situations, and awareness of taking risks.
Abstract: Conflicts regarding the siting of hazardous facilities in the U.S. have often led to an impasse due to numerous problems, particularly including social distrust. To address this situation, this article proposes a multidimensional conception of trust, including cognitive, emotional, and behavioral aspects, and involving themes of expectations about others, subjective perceptions of situations, and awareness of taking risks. Four key dimensions of trust are perceptions of commitment, competence, caring, and predictability. Distrust arises from violations of expectations that people have in social relations. Research has shown a broad loss of trust in leaders and in major social institutions in the U.S. since the 1960s, together with growing public concern over health, safety, and environmental protection. These trends combine to make hazardous-facility siting highly controversial. This article recommends key steps in risk communication and hazardous-facility siting that are aimed at dealing as effectively as possible with social distrust.
522 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors present a framework of social amplification of risk which integrates the technical assessment and the social experience of risk, and propose that the social and economic impacts of an adverse event are determined not only by the direct physical consequences of the event, but by the interaction of psychological, cultural, social, and institutional processes that amplify or attenuate public experiences of risk and result in secondary impacts.
Abstract: The article presents the framework of social amplification of risk which integrates the technical assessment and the social experience of risk. Risk perception research has revealed that contextual factors shape individual risk estimations and evaluations. Identification of these factors, such as voluntariness, personal ability to influence risks, familiarity with the hazard, and catastrophic potential, provides useful information about the elements that individuals consider in constructing their interpretation of risks. In addition, analyses of people's heuristics in making inferences have shed some light on how risk information is generalized and evaluated intuitively. These psychological studies fail to explain, however, why individuals attend to certain characteristics of risks and ignore others. Furthermore, in focusing only on the individual as an information processor, these studies exclude from the analysis the social and cultural variance of risk interpretations. The social amplification framework postulates that the social and economic impacts of an adverse event are determined not only by the direct physical consequences of the event, but by the interaction of psychological, cultural, social, and institutional processes that amplify or attenuate public experience of risk and result in secondary impacts.
485 citations
TL;DR: A methodology for measuring, predicting, and aiding the public's understanding of environmental hazards has been proposed in this paper, which is illustrated here with a set of interviews about the risks of radon.
Abstract: Lay people's ability to respond to an environmental hazard is determined, in part, by their understanding of the physical, chemical, and biological processes that govern its creation and control. A general methodology is offered here for studying that understanding. It attempts to characterize people's mental models of a hazard—i.e., the sets of principles from which they generate predictions about its behavior. The organizing device for this methodology is a network representation of expert knowledge about the hazard, emphasizing concepts relevant to risk management. This methodology is illustrated here with a set of interviews about the risks of radon. The results have implications for measuring, predicting, and aiding the public's understanding of environmental hazards.
369 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors conceptualized the relations between values and actions from the point of view of expectancy-value theory, where values induce valences on events and potential outcomes, and these valences in association with expectations are important determinants of the final action that is taken.
Abstract: This article conceptualizes the relations between values and actions from the point of view of expectancy-value theory. Key assumptions are that values induce valences on events and potential outcomes, and that these valences in association with expectations are important determinants of the final action that is taken. The approach is illustrated by results from a recent study concerned with job-seeking behavior among the unemployed. The approach is discussed in relation to Lewinian theory and to recent theoretical statements concerning commitment, volition, and self-regulation. Related approaches to conceptualizing relations between values and actions are briefly noted, along with the need to take account of the activation of values and valences in relation to the cognitive-affective system.
329 citations
TL;DR: The authors examined historical factors related to African American women's rape and their disclosure patterns and compared similarities and differences in incidents of attempted or completed rape in a community sample of 55 African American and White women.
Abstract: This paper examines historical factors related to African American women's rape and their disclosure patterns. It compares similarities and differences in incidents of attempted or completed rape in a community sample of 55 African American and White women. The possibility that African American women may not perceive themselves as rape victims or their experiences as meeting the criteria of “real rape” has implications for the disclosure of incidents, as well as the initial and lasting effects of sexual victimization. Researchers are urged to include ethnicity as a factor contributing to women's self-perceptions as rape survivors.
304 citations
TL;DR: The authors discusses the extent of rape in the U.S. today, including a critical analysis of federal and independent sources of incidence data, concluding that the incidence of rape is much higher than federal statistics suggest, but data are insufficient to resolve whether an epidemic is underway.
Abstract: This paper discusses the extent of rape in the U.S. today, including a critical analysis of federal and independent sources of incidence data. Rape incidence estimates derived from the National Crime Survey (NCS) are flawed because of measurement methods that undermine full disclosure of victimization. Conclusions include (a) the incidence of rape is much higher than federal statistics suggest, but data are insufficient to resolve whether an epidemic is underway, (b) acquaintance rape is far more common than documented in crime surveys, and (c) improvement in rape detection is promised by the proposed revisions in the NCS.
284 citations
TL;DR: The authors argue that a more fruitful approach may be to focus on understanding the broader system that creates such conflicts in the first place, and to seek greater balance in the frames of reference used in discussions.
Abstract: The issue of public responses to technological risks has attracted attention from social and behavioral scientists, and also from policy spokespersons. Three main viewpoints can be discerned: the public as ignorant/irrational, selfish, and prudent. These three perspectives are different in their implications for policy as well as for empirical research, and it has often been easier to see the influence of policy preferences on the existing research literature than to see the influence of empirical research on policy debates. The ignorance/irrationality perspective, once widely held (particularly by policy spokespersons), has repeatedly failed to be supported by empirical research. The selfishness and prudence perspectives both change the focus from blaming the citizen opponents of technology to attempting to understand the differences between citizens and specialists, albeit using different explanations. We argue that a more fruitful approach may be to focus on understanding the broader system that creates such conflicts in the first place, and to seek greater balance in the frames of reference used in discussions.
190 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examine researchers' definitions of sexual assault, rape, and related terms, and discuss implications for researchers' results and conclusions, underlying assumptions, and political ramifications.
Abstract: Definitions set the parameters of research and influence the results and conclusions. It is thus crucial that researchers critically examine definitions and terms, particularly in fields that use popular terms likely to be influenced by the unacknowledged biases and political concerns of the dominant group. The study of sexual assault is such a field, and therefore this article examines researchers' definitions of sexual assault, rape, and related terms. Definitions vary along several dimensions, including (a) the sexual behaviors specified, (b) the criteria for establishing nonconsent, (c) the individuals specified, and (d) the perspective specified—that is, who decides whether sexual assault has occurred. For each dimension, the article discusses implications for researchers' results and conclusions, underlying assumptions, and political ramifications.
162 citations
TL;DR: The meaning of sexual assault and women's sexuality have changed significantly since the colonial period as mentioned in this paper, where women were valued for their sexual purity and were viewed as the center of the family.
Abstract: The meanings of sexual assault and women's sexuality have changed significantly since the colonial period. At that time, women were valued for their sexual purity and were viewed as the center of the family. Sexual intercourse was acceptable only within marriage for the purpose of procreation. If a woman engaged in sex outside of marriage, even against her will, she was considered a “fallen” woman and was often blamed for her own victimization. With the feminist movement of the 1960s, rape was reconceptualized as a mechanism for maintaining male control and domination, a violent means of inducing fear in women and reinforcing their subordination to men. This reconceptualization has made a clear difference in the way our culture defines and understands sexual assault, but much still needs to change.
144 citations
TL;DR: This article examined the influence of gender and ethnicity on the probability of experiencing sexual assault, the circumstances surrounding the assault, and its sequelae based on a sample of over 3000 adult community residents, Hispanics and men reported significantly lower rates of assault than non-Hispanic Whites and women.
Abstract: This paper examines the influence of gender and ethnicity (Hispanic compared to non-Hispanic White) on the probability of experiencing sexual assault, the circumstances surrounding the assault, and its sequelae Based on a sample of over 3000 adult community residents, Hispanics and men reported significantly lower rates of assault than non-Hispanic Whites and women Once individuals were assaulted, however, neither ethnicity nor gender were related to their probability of being victimized again Assaulted persons were more likely than nonassaulted persons to have a mental disorder; however, this association did not differ by gender or ethnicity Women were more likely than men to report specific emotional and behavioral reactions to an assault Sexual assault was associated with significantly greater use of mental health and general health services, regardless of gender or ethnicity Provision of services for sexual assault victims is discussed in light of these findings
TL;DR: Clinical evidence and the cardinal features of PAS are presented, and objections to the validity of this diagnostic category are discussed.
Abstract: Elective abortion, the most common surgical procedure in the United States, continues to generate considerable moral, legal, medical, and psychological controversy. This article reviews the pertinent literature, defines and describes postabortion syndrome (PAS) as a type of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder. Four basic components of PAS are proposed: (a) exposure to or participation in an abortion experience, which is perceived as the traumatic and intentional destruction of one's unborn child; (b) uncontrolled negative reexperiencing of the abortion event; (c) unsuccessful attempts to avoid or deny painful abortion recollections, resulting in reduced responsiveness; and (d) experiencing associated symptoms not present before the abortion, including guilt about surviving. Clinical evidence and the cardinal features of PAS are presented, and objections to the validity of this diagnostic category are discussed.
TL;DR: The framing of risk issues can exacerbate conflict, leading to differences in which perspectives are judged legitimate or valid, what solutions are seen as reasonable, and what type of information is seen as useful or relevant.
Abstract: Decision making about environmental and public health risks has become a frequent source of social conflict in society, often resulting in major obstacles to effective risk management and disruptions in the policy process. Individuals vary not only in policy preferences and responses to environmental hazards, but also in underlying belief and value systems that influence several aspects of the environmental decision-making process. In particular, variability in the framing of risk issues can exacerbate conflict, leading to differences in which perspectives are judged legitimate or valid, what solutions are seen as reasonable, and what type of information is seen as useful or relevant. In many controversies, groups have differed systematically in framing risk issues: as scientific or economic vs. fairness and equity questions, in terms of what at-risk population is highlighted, and in focusing primarily on potential gain or loss as the result of a decision.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors provided a profile of sexual assault victims from a representative sample of urban and rural southern women. The profile included information about the prevalence and characteristics of sexual assaults, demographic correlates, self-reported effects of sexual Assault, and sources of help seeking.
Abstract: In previous research, the lifetime prevalence of sexual assault among U.S. women ranges from less than 15% to more than 50%. Much of this variability is due to methodological differences across studies, but some of the inconsistency may be substantively meaningful, reflecting the effects of social context on the risk of sexual assault. This paper provides a profile of sexual assault victims from a representative sample of urban and rural southern women. The profile includes information about the prevalence and characteristics of sexual assault, demographic correlates, self-reported effects of sexual assault, and sources of help seeking. This profile is compared with results from a representative, urban, and ethnically diverse sample of sexual assault victims in Los Angeles. Differences across and within the samples highlight the effects of social context on the risk, correlates, and consequences of sexual assault.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors focus on understanding individual and social group responses to environmental hazards and conclude that the effective management of many environmental hazards depends on reconciliation of the objectivist and constructivist perspectives.
Abstract: Effective management of environmental hazards requires knowledge of both physical environmental systems and the psychosocial processes affecting responses to environmental conditions. This journal issue focuses on understanding individual and social group responses to environmental hazards. This article suggests that hazard managers and others are often perplexed by the diversity of people's conclusions about environmental hazards because they adopt an objectivist perspective, which views risk only as a physical characteristic. The constructivist perspective adopted by the social sciences holds that risk assessment reflects human judgments, which are influenced by various psychological and social factors reviewed herein. We conclude that the effective management of many environmental hazards depends on reconciliation of the objectivist and constructivist perspectives. This can be accomplished by recognizing that risk communication, the exchange of information and opinions about hazards, should integrate technical information about hazards with the interests and values of affected parties including the public, in order to develop common solutions to environmental problems.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors summarized many of the sources of stress that often accompany environmental threats, examined both individual and collective strategies for coping with environmental threats and the efficacy of these strategies, and discussed some of the problems with measuring coping strategies and with gauging their success.
Abstract: This article summarizes many of the sources of stress that often accompany environmental threats, examines both individual and collective strategies for coping with environmental threats and the efficacy of these strategies, and discusses some of the problems with measuring coping strategies and with gauging their success. It describes collective coping strategies within the framework of social and institutional networks, and it considers why grass-roots citizen groups are often formed as a coping strategy and what needs these organizations seem to fulfill. It presents some empirical research on individual and collective coping strategies derived from an investigation that examined residents' coping strategies in response to living near a large hazardous waste landfill. Finally, it addresses some of the social and policy implications of the ways that people cope with environmental hazards.
TL;DR: A review of recent literature reveals that Lewin's thought and work still guide activity in applied social psychology, particularly studies of groups, and in the practice of action research as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: This journal issue commemorates the recent 100th anniversary of the birth of Kurt Lewin, a founder of the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues and of this, SPSSI's journal. It appears that his influence in academic social psychology has declined of late, but a review of recent literature reveals that Lewin's thought and work still guide activity in applied social psychology, particularly studies of groups, and in the practice of action research. The articles in this issue further demonstrate that contemporary social scientists find stimulation and direction for theory, research, and action in Lewin's legacy.
TL;DR: In this paper, a review of psychosocial factors that may serve as risk factors for the experience of short-term distress following induced abortion is presented, including blaming the pregnancy on one's character, low preabortion coping expectancies, low levels of perceived social support from important others, and a difficult abortion decision.
Abstract: Psychosocial factors that may serve as “risk factors” for the experience of short-term distress following induced abortion are reviewed. Factors found to be predictive of affective distress include blaming the pregnancy on one's character, low preabortion coping expectancies, low levels of perceived social support from important others, and a difficult abortion decision. Social conflict over the abortion decision, the nature of the woman's relationship with her partner, the coping strategies that she employs, her pre-pregnancy level of psychological functioning, and life events occurring subsequent to the abortion are also suggested as potentially important predictors of adjustment. Coping expectancies are proposed to be the most proximal and important predictor of short-term postabortion adjustment. Implications for clinical practice and public policy on abortion are discussed.
TL;DR: This paper developed a theoretical model of the psychological antecedents of abortion and a family of related theoretical models of the long-term psychological consequences of abortion using data collected during the mid-1970s as part of a longitudinal study of 967 women living in the San Francisco Bay Area.
Abstract: On the basis of empirical studies previously reported in the research literature, this article develops a theoretical model of the psychological antecedents of abortion and a family of related theoretical models of the long-term psychological consequences of abortion. Then, using data collected during the mid-1970s as part of a longitudinal study of 967 women living in the San Francisco Bay Area, these models are tested with multiple regression analysis. The results provide considerable support for the model of psychological antecedents and for several of the models of psychological consequences. The specific findings are discussed and some of their policy implications are described.
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors utilize three areas of knowledge derived from field theory to conceptualize and analyze the planning and conduct of conflict management workshops for Arab and Jewish youth in Israel.
Abstract: This article utilizes three areas of knowledge derived from field theory to conceptualize and analyze the planning and conduct of conflict management workshops for Arab and Jewish youth in Israel. The three areas of knowledge are ethnic identity and majority—minority relations, a theory of individual change within a social group, and principles of action research. The central field-theoretical concepts in each of these areas were applied to contemporary conflict management workshops. Among the products of this action research were changes in participants' attitudes, development of methods for the training and support of trainers, and accumulated knowledge regarding the differences between the two ethnic groups in communication and interpersonal styles.
TL;DR: In this article, a theory is proposed that there may be as many as five varieties of courtship rape, each of which arises at a different stage of a romantic relationship in terms of both the length of the relationship and previous sexual activity.
Abstract: A theory is proposed that there may be as many as five varieties of courtship rape. Each type is described as arising at a different stage of a romantic relationship in terms of both the length of the relationship and previous sexual activity. Beginning date rape occurs during a couple's first few dates. Early date rape occurs after several dates but before the couple has established sexual ground rules. Relational rape occurs after the couple's sexual ground rules have been established. The remaining two forms of rape occur after a couple has or had an active sexual relationship, and they are distinguished by the presence or absence of battering. When this form occurs without physical abuse, it may be essentially the same as relational rape. Suggestions and hypotheses for testing this model are provided.
TL;DR: Citing ethnic mental health research, it is argued that the critical issue is the intertwining of research with policy recommendations, not whether one precedes or follows the other.
Abstract: The relationship between social science research and public policy/program advocacy has been controversial. One position is that policy advocacy should be preceded and guided by research findings that clearly provide a rationale for the advocacy. Another position is that promotion of policies may be wise even in the absence of a strong research justification, because research findings are often inconclusive and the urgency of many social issues demands immediate action. Citing ethnic mental health research, I argue that the critical issue is the intertwining of research with policy recommendations, not whether one precedes or follows the other.
TL;DR: Lewin's introduction of topological psychology was an exciting innovation as well as an object of ridicule as discussed by the authors, and the reasons for its function as a fighting slogan for the Lewinian school and for its decline are analyzed.
Abstract: Lewin's introduction of topological psychology was an exciting innovation as well as an object of ridicule. The reasons for its function as a fighting slogan for the Lewinian school and for its decline are analyzed. Topology provided a fruitful metaphor, but its mathematical use was insufficiently developed, partly because topology was an underdeveloped field of mathematics at the time. However, Lewin showed foresight in insisting on the need for a mathematics applicable to psychology. Modern developments in topology, especially catastrophe theory, are shown to be productive for psychological theory and its applications, thus justifying Lewin's intuition.
TL;DR: The authors explored three approaches to the problem of sexual violence in the media: (a) legal restrictions, (b) informational labeling, and (c) formal education, concluding that it is premature to advocate legal restrictions since existing research leaves too many questions unanswered.
Abstract: Depictions of sexual violence in the media can promote antisocial attitudes and behavior. Three approaches to the problem of sexual violence in the media are explored: (a) legal restrictions, (b) informational labeling, and (c) formal education. It is premature to advocate legal restrictions since existing research leaves too many questions unanswered. Informational labeling is not a viable solution because of problems inherent in the most widely used scheme, including the basic assumption that ratings should be based on what is offensive to parents rather than on what is assumed to be or known to be “harmful” to viewers. Research on educational interventions designed to mitigate the effects of exposure to sexual violence is discussed, and several promising procedures are identified.
TL;DR: It is argued that prevalence rates for psychological risks following legal abortions in the U.S. should be viewed with great caution, and that decisions about what risks are acceptable are largely political decisions rather than scientific ones.
Abstract: The incidence of psychological problems following abortion is hotly debated. This article uses a methodological critique of the key research to argue that prevalence rates for psychological risks following legal abortions in the U.S. should be viewed with great caution. Knowledge of prevalence alone, however, is inadequate for policy decisions. Information is also needed about the risks associated with the policy options intended to replace abortion (relative risk). Studies that used a comparison group have shown that the psychological risks associated with abortion are similar to those associated with childbirth. Furthermore, past research cannot answer whether abortion causes psychological responses that sometimes occur. We conclude that, although the studies cited by pro-choice advocates are much more methodologically sound than those cited by pro-life advocates, decisions about what risks are acceptable are largely political decisions rather than scientific ones.
TL;DR: A consistent theme, running through socialization research for many years and especially strong at the present time, is that successful socialization of children involves not only bringing about their outward conformity to parental directives, but also enabling them to become self-regulating, and motivating them so that they become willing to cooperate with parental socialization efforts.
Abstract: Work on “democratic” and “authoritative” parenting is traced to historical roots in the Lewinian work on group atmospheres. A consistent theme, running through socialization research for many years and especially strong at the present time, is that successful socialization of children involves not only bringing about their outward conformity to parental directives, but also enabling them to become self-regulating, and motivating them so that they become willing to cooperate with parental socialization efforts. Research seeking to identify the parenting practices most associated with self-regulation and willing compliance is reviewed. Reciprocity between parents and children, and the bidirectional nature of influence, are stressed.
TL;DR: Lewin's own life experiences that had the greatest impact upon his professional focus on social issues, such as intergroup relations and prejudice, and that influenced his general field theoretical approach to psychology are explored in this article.
Abstract: This article, based on personal memories of his daughter, explores aspects of Lewin's own life experiences that had the greatest impact upon his professional focus on social issues, such as intergroup relations and prejudice, and that influenced his general field theoretical approach to psychology. Selected aspects of his childhood, his education, his experiences as a combat soldier in World War I, and his experiences with anti-Jewish prejudice earlier in his life resulted in the unusual equalitarianism that so many people who knew him observed, as well as a distinctive approach to psychology. The massive impact of fascism—the effect of his flight from Germany, his efforts to rescue his extended family, and the death of his mother in the Holocaust—greatly influenced his choice of and his approach to research problems.
TL;DR: In this paper, the best predictors of mitigation intentions proved to be global appraisals of threat plus the radon levels themselves; however, translating these intentions into action, however, seemed to reflect situational obstacles rather than beliefs about radon risk, beliefs about Radon mitigation, or demographic variables.
Abstract: Radon gas can accumulate indoors to levels that present a serious lung cancer risk. Six data sets were examined to discover what homeowners do to cope with this hazard after they have tested for radon. The best predictors of mitigation intentions proved to be global appraisals of threat plus the radon levels themselves. Translating these intentions into action, however, seemed to reflect situational obstacles rather than beliefs about radon risk, beliefs about radon mitigation, or demographic variables. Survey respondents had difficulty understanding the amount of risk posed by radon in their homes, and it appears that the observed correspondence between radon levels and mitigation responses was due almost entirely to the existence of a government-established action guideline.
TL;DR: Desc descriptive analyses of selected demographic and social characteristics of abortion patients with separation for critical subpopulations of women: never married minors never married adults and married adults along with a comparison of mothers and non-mothers are provided.
Abstract: Who has abortions and why will play an important role in how policy makers regulate access if the Supreme Court further restricts abortion. Group summaries of characteristics have masked the diversity of competing role obligations access to coping resources and stressful life events which can affect the abortion decision. This article provides descriptive analyses of selected demographic and social characteristics of abortion patients with separation for critical subpopulations of women: never married minors never married adults and married adults along with a comparison of mothers and non-mothers. Topics include: Abortion Data: Sources and Limitations; The Abortion Context; Characteristics of Women Obtaining Legal Abortions; Reasons for Abortion. Many of the reasons that adult women give for abortion reflect a desire to meet responsibilities for others or to conform to societys norms e.g. not having children when one cannot afford them. A lack of readiness or ability to take care of a child figure prominently for minors. Married women cite personal health concerns; financial concerns figure prominently in all groups. Favoring adoption fails to consider the potential psychological and emotional impact of an adoption decision on a womens existing children. Without abortion the past 10 years would have seen the birth of an estimated 15 million additional children a population at high risk for psychological social and economic disadvantages. The abortion context is complex: the decision reflects a desire to optimize the quality of martial and childbearing experiences and to reduce the risk of physical psychological social and economic disadvantage for women and their children. In so doing women help reduce a variety of social and economic problems that would undermine the integrity and functioning of the larger society.
TL;DR: In the past 15 years, substantial and widespread changes in federal and state rape laws, designed to advance the concerns of feminists and law enforcement interests, have gone into effect over the past fifteen years as discussed by the authors.
Abstract: Substantial and widespread changes in federal and state rape laws, designed to advance the concerns of feminists and law enforcement interests, have gone into effect over the past 15 years. Some researchers who have tried to assess the effects of these reforms believe the changes have thwarted feminist goals; others have found little impact on case processing or victims' experiences; still others have pronounced the reform efforts a success. There are many obstacles to measuring and achieving rape reform, the most notable being the need to eliminate juror misconceptions about rape and its victims. Contemporary research and law reform should focus on the trial process, especially on how rules of evidence and methods of constructing a rape case relate to social perceptions about gender, coercion, and sexuality.