Showing papers in "Journal of Social Psychology in 1982"
TL;DR: The authors found that competent persons are better liked than self-enhancing ones in Chinese societies and that self-effacing attributions support norms whose function is to maintain harmonious interpersonal relationships.
Abstract: Summary It is argued that a person in Chinese societies who makes self-effacing attributions for his performance should be better liked because his self-effacing attributions support norms whose function is to maintain harmonious interpersonal relationships. To test this hypothesis, Chinese Ss (N = 56) in the experiment watched two confederates (Cs) working on an intellectual task. These Cs were either competent or incompetent and subsequently made either self-effacing or self-enhancing attributions for their performance. Ss then rated them on 12 seven-point bipolar scales tapping likability, competence, and anxiety. Results indicated that a self-effacing C was better liked but rated as less competent than a self-enhancing C. Though in the United States competent persons are better liked, such a finding was not replicated in the present study. Consistent with a self-presentational analysis, incompetent performers who made self-enhancing attributions were perceived as more anxious than performers in the ot...
172 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the effect of smiling on interpersonal attraction and perception was examined in a 2 (sex of perceiver) x 2 (searcher) and 2 (feeling of stimulus person) × 2 (facial expression) experiment.
Abstract: Summary The effect of smiling on interpersonal attraction and perception was examined in a 2 (sex of perceiver) x 2 (sex of stimulus person) x 2 (facial expression) experiment. Ss were presented a photograph of a stimulus person either smiling or not smiling. Results lend strong support to the prediction that Ss liked a smiling person more and evaluated him or her more positively than a nonsmiling person. Moreover, a smiling person was perceived to be more intelligent and could create in the perceiver a warm feeling more so than a nonsmiling person.
137 citations
TL;DR: The relationship between ethical ideology and moral behavior was investigated in two studies by tempting American college students (19 males and 61 females) to cheat on a test administered in a laboratory setting as mentioned in this paper.
Abstract: Summary The relationship between ethical ideology and moral behavior was investigated in two studies by tempting American college students (19 males and 61 females) to cheat on a test administered in a laboratory setting Overall, students who adopted different ethical ideologies, as assessed by the 2 (relativistic vs nonrelativistic moral outlook) by 2 (idealistic vs pragmatic values) classification scheme of the Ethics Position Questionnaire (EPQ) behaved similarly However, questionnaire ratings indicated (a) self-devaluation was most pronounced among absolutists (nonrelativistic and idealistic); (b) exceptionists (nonrelativistic and pragmatic) reported increased happiness the more they cheated; (c) situationists’ (relativistic and idealistic) self-ratings were not clearly related to the morality of their actions; and (d) subjectivists (relativistic and pragmatic) showed signs of fear of detection Combined with previous data, these findings suggest variations in ethical ideology may predict individua
130 citations
TL;DR: The extent of belief in a wide variety of extraordinary phenomena was examined among people of different educational backgrounds as discussed by the authors, and a questionnaire, which included a 30-item extraordinary belief inventory, as well as demographic and personal questions, was completed by 113 students, 352 university professors, and 251 members of the general public.
Abstract: Summary The extent of belief in a wide variety of extraordinary phenomena was examined among people of different educational backgrounds. A questionnaire, which included a 30-item Extraordinary Belief Inventory, as well as demographic and personal questions, was completed by 113 students, 352 university professors, and 251 members of the general public. University professors were found to be significantly more skeptical than students and members of the general public regarding belief in extraordinary phenomena. Professors in the English department were significantly less skeptical with regard to some extraordinary beliefs than were professors in other departments. Correlations between a number of demographic factors and belief in extraordinary phenomena were generally low in all groups.
121 citations
TL;DR: In this paper, the authors investigated the relationship among variables defined by the Fishbein-Ajzen model, situational factors, and energy consumption measures, and concluded that given the complex nature of energy consumption, multiple treatments are probably necessary to increase conservation.
Abstract: Summary One hundred and thirteen students and 506 consumers in a statewide sample participated in two studies which investigated the relationship among variables defined by the Fishbein-Ajzen model, situational factors, and energy consumption measures. Correlational analyses with the student sample indicated that one of the situational variables, knowledge, predicted energy usage relatively accurately. In addition, the standard Fishbein-Ajzen model appeared to be moderately useful in understanding energy consumption. With the statewide sample, similar results were found except that the situational variable of income rather than knowledge was the most potent predictor. A manipulation attempting to alter the information level of the students yielded a change in knowledge, but no change in the Fishbein-Ajzen measures. It was concluded that given the complex nature of energy consumption, multiple treatments are probably necessary to increase conservation.
96 citations
TL;DR: A series of five studies as discussed by the authors investigated the relationship between religious belief or adherence and psychological characteristics, including achievement motivation, task-orientation, success orientation, Machiavellianism, alienation, dogmatism, authoritarianism, locus of control, neuroticism, social desirability orientation, metaphysical faith, belief in predestination, frugality and belief in the depravity of human nature.
Abstract: Summary A series of five studies is reported to investigate the relationship between religious belief or adherence and psychological characteristics. Samples from 75 to 240 people were used which had at least some claim to general population representativeness. Attributes studied included achievement motivation, task-orientation, success-orientation, Machiavellianism, alienation, dogmatism, authoritarianism, locus of control, neuroticism, social desirability orientation, metaphysical faith, belief in predestination, frugality, belief in the depravity of human nature, and Puritan morality. Twelve different scales measured various aspects of achievement and work motivation. Scales purportedly measuring the Protestant ethic by Blood and by Mirels and Garrett were also included. Not one of the scales showed any Catholic/Protestant differences which were statistically significant. Several, however, differentiated unbelievers from the religious. Unbelievers were those with especially high achievement motivation...
94 citations
TL;DR: A new scale was developed for measuring prejudicial attitudes towards homosexuals (homosexism) and results indicate that the scale is valid and should facilitate research in this area.
Abstract: Summary A new scale was developed for measuring prejudicial attitudes towards homosexuals (homosexism). Scale item analysis was based upon questionnaire responses from 143 college students and results in the development of both a long-form and a short-form scale. Both forms were highly reliable and yielded nearly identical results. Validity was assessed by administering the short-form scale to an additional 112 Ss and testing previously supported relationships. Results indicate that the scale is valid and should facilitate research in this area.
84 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors combined a labeling technique with the foot-in-the-door procedure to see whether compliance would be altered, and the results showed that a positive label produced significantly greater compliance, and a negative label was associated with significantly lower compliance.
Abstract: Summary The foot-in-the-door procedure, first experimentally proposed by Freedman and Fraser, increases compliance for a critical request by preceding it with an easier request. Self-perception theory has frequently been used to explain why the procedure is effective. Labeling of an individual's behavior by others also may influence that individual's self-concept. The present study combined a labeling technique with the foot-in-the-door procedure to see whether compliance would be altered. An easy request was first asked of individuals entering a university library, and after answering they were informed that their response was either helpful or not helpful. Control conditions were also carried out. With 120 university students serving as Ss, the results showed that a positive label produced significantly greater compliance, and a negative label produced significantly lower compliance, when compared to the typical (nonlabel) foot-in-the-door procedure.
82 citations
TL;DR: In this article, three hundred and sixty-seven respondents selected from five widely differing groups in two U.S. communities were administered a questionnaire tapping personal action for or against nuclear power, as well as a variety of attitudinal, cognitive and sociodemographic variables.
Abstract: Summary Three-hundred and sixty-seven respondents selected from five widely differing groups in two U.S. communities were administered a questionnaire tapping personal action for or against nuclear power, as well as a variety of attitudinal, cognitive, and sociodemographic variables. Respondents included members of environmental groups, college students, blue-collar workers, business people, and nuclear engineers and other technologists. The results indicated that degree of self-reported action was systematically correlated with the rated “acceptability,” risks, benefits, and qualitative characteristics of nuclear power. The results also pointed to other major correlates of personal action, including confidence in various risk-management institutions and organizations. Emphasis is placed upon general methodological issues involved in the study of risk perceptions, acceptability judgments, and actions.
82 citations
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined perceptions of the threat posed by a volcano in Washington State and found that intensive dissemination of hazard information during a short period of imminent threat of disaster sensitized people to the pending event.
Abstract: Summary This paper examines perceptions of the threat posed by a volcano in Washington State. In particular, interest is focused upon the level of perceived risk, the sources and frequency of information receipt and the level of confidence of the affected population in the adequacy of the information received. A probability sample of 230 citizens was taken from seven communities situated near Mt. St. Helens, Washington, which resumed volcanic activity in March 1980 after a 123-year dormant period. The data analyses indicate that intensive dissemination of hazard information during a short period of imminent threat of disaster sensitized people to the pending event.
81 citations
TL;DR: It was concluded that as long as psychopaths can keep out of trouble, they may have many advantages over others.
Abstract: Summary Classical descriptions of the psychopathic personality include a number of highly desirable characteristics in addition to the obviously undesirable ones. Following Eysenck, it is hypothesized that this personality type is not a type at all but merely an extreme of normal personality traits. Subclinical manifestations of psychopathy are therefore studied. The MMPI “PD” scale was administered together with other scales to a random postal sample of the Australian State of New South Wales. The resulting sample of 128 people showed a representative demographic structure. High “PD” scores were found to be associated with honesty (low lie scale scores), permissiveness, good perceived relationships with others, denial of being tough and rejection of punitiveness. They were also correlated with Machiavellianism and lesser education. It was concluded that as long as psychopaths can keep out of trouble, they may have many advantages over others.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of the presence of other bystanders, race of victim, and prejudice of the S on emergency helping were investigated, and it was hypothesized that white bystanders would succumb to conformity pressures not to intervene more readily for black than white victims.
Abstract: Summary The effects of the presence of other bystanders, race of victim, and prejudice of the S on emergency helping were investigated. Ss (43 white female college students), either alone or in the face-to-face presence of nonresponsive bystanders, viewed an emergency involving a black or white female victim. It was hypothesized that white bystanders would succumb to conformity pressures not to intervene more readily for black than white victims. As predicted, Ss, especially those high in prejudice, in the presence of passive bystanders helped blacks more slowly than whites; high-and low-prejudice-scoring Ss believing themselves to be the only witnesses helped black and white victims equally quickly. Ss’ self-reports of severity of the victim's injury and heart-rate response, monitored by biotelemetry throughout the study, supported the view that the inhibition effect was due to susceptibility to normative pressures not to intervene.
TL;DR: Comparisons were made of the effects of cooperative and individualistic learning experiences on interpersonal attraction between handicapped and nonhandicapped eleventh-grade students and their achievement, and results indicate that cooperative learning experiences, compared with individualistic ones, promote more cross- handicapped interaction during instruction.
Abstract: Summary Comparisons were made of the effects of cooperative and individualistic learning experiences on interpersonal attraction between handicapped and nonhandicapped eleventh-grade students and their achievement. Thirty-one students were assigned to conditions on a stratified random basis, with control held for handicap, ability, and sex. They participated in one instructional unit for 55 minutes a day for 16 instructional days. A behavioral measure was employed for cross-handicapped interaction within the instructional situation. A number of attitude and achievement measures were also given. The results indicate that cooperative learning experiences, compared with individualistic ones, promote more cross-handicapped interaction during instruction, more interpersonal attraction between handicapped and nonhandicapped students, and higher achievement on the part of both handicapped and nonhandicapped students.
TL;DR: In this article, the effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning experiences were compared on interethnic interaction and attitudes among 4th-grade boys and girls among four different ethnicities.
Abstract: Summary The effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning experiences were compared on interethnic interaction and attitudes among 4th-grade boys and girls. Seventy-six students were assigned to conditions on a stratified random basis controlling for ethnic membership, ability, and sex. They participated in two instructional units for 45 minutes a day for 15 instructional days. Behavioral and attitudinal measures were taken for cross-ethnic interaction during the instructional sessions and during daily free-time periods. The results indicate that cooperative learning experiences, compared with competitive and individualistic ones, promoted more cross-ethnic interaction and more positive cross-ethnic attitudes.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the superiority of the high-Consideration, high-Initiating Structure leadership style, where it was claimed that American leaders with this style have more satisfied subordinates than leaders with other Consideration-Structure combinations.
Abstract: Summary This paper examines the purported superiority of the high-Consideration, high-Initiating Structure leadership style, where it is claimed that American leaders with this style have more satisfied subordinates than leaders with other Consideration-Structure combinations. For two different versions of the Ohio State leadership scales, regressions were calculated with the use of data collected from four different U.S. samples: (a) university maintenance workers (N = 230), (b) employed students (N = 178), (c) middle managers in an air-sea transport company (N = 96), and (d) employees in the operations division of a large public utility (N = 258). On the basis of the regression results, it was concluded that the superiority of the high-high leadership style is indeed a myth, and that Consideration alone explains almost all of the variance in subordinate satisfaction. The implications for testing complex leadership models are briefly discussed.
TL;DR: In this paper, personal and social interaction factors, which were expected to divert attention from external stimuli and events and thus impair memory for persons, were examined and found that high trait self-consciousness, high information load, and two elements of self-presentation (high state selfconsciousness and information transmission) are expected to produce worse recall of persons' names and characteristics.
Abstract: Summary Personal and social interaction factors, which were expected to divert attention from external stimuli and events and thus impair memory for persons, were examined. High trait self-consciousness, high information load, and two elements of self-presentation (high state self-consciousness and information transmission) were expected to produce worse recall of persons’ names and characteristics. Forty low self-conscious and 40 high self-conscious females heard five females introduce themselves either by name or by name with other information. Ss presented themselves either not at all or more fully in one of four conditions. The more information Ss heard, the worse their recall of names was. Low self-conscious Ss remembered characteristics better than high self-conscious Ss. Self-presentation did not affect either kind of recall. Results were discussed in terms of narrowed attention to different elements of the social situation.
TL;DR: The effects of individual and group contingencies were studied on achievement, appropriate classroom behavior, acceptance of handicapped peers, and self-esteem of academically and socially handicapped students.
Abstract: Summary The effects of individual and group contingencies were studied on achievement, appropriate classroom behavior, acceptance of handicapped peers, and self-esteem of academically and socially handicapped students. Four studies are reported, focusing on the following: four first-graders, 11 seventh-graders, five ninth-graders, and five first-graders. All were low-achieving, special needs students, many of whom were seeing special education teachers due to their disruptive classroom behavior and alienation of their peers. In all studies, group-contingency procedures were compared to individual-contingency procedures or no-contingency procedures. Different operationalizations of group-contingency procedures were used in each study. The studies were conducted in different school districts at different times of the year. Variations of A-B-A designs were used in the studies. The results are consistent, indicating that group contingencies (compared with individual contingencies or no contingencies at all) p...
TL;DR: The results indicate that cooperative learning experiences promoted higher achievement, greater retention, more positive attitudes among students, and higher self-esteem than did individualistic learning experiences.
Abstract: Summary The effects of cooperative and individualistic learning experiences were compared on achievement of academically handicapped, normal-progress, and gifted sixth-grade students. Fifty-five students were assigned to conditions on a stratified random basis controlling for ability and sex. They participated in one instructional unit for 65 minutes a day for five instructional days. The results indicate that cooperative learning experiences promoted higher achievement, greater retention, more positive attitudes among students, and higher self-esteem than did individualistic learning experiences.
TL;DR: This paper explored variation in hedonic consumption patterns among members of religion- and nationality-based ethnic groups and found that significant ethnic differences were present in projective behavior, imagery, behavioral motives, and preferred leisure activities.
Abstract: Summary The research explored variation in hedonic consumption patterns among members of religion- and nationality-based ethnic groups. It was assumed that observed differences in types and levels of hedonic consumption will increase our understanding of the hedonic aspects of ethnicity and the effects of ethnic socialization upon consumption. Religious groupings were Catholic (n = 167), Jewish (n = 228), and Protestant (n = 55). Nationality groupings were Chinese (n = 29), Greek (n = 23), Irish (n = 20), Italian (n = 68), Jewish (n = 200), and English (n = 49). Data were gathered from college students and their social contacts residing in New York City. It was found that significant ethnic differences were present in projective behavior, imagery, behavioral motives, and preferred leisure activities, thus supporting the utility of further investigating the hedonic behavior-ethnicity linkage.
TL;DR: In this paper, a smooth transition in Conversational Interaction is discussed. But it is not discussed in this paper. The Journal of Social Psychology: Vol. 117, No. 2, pp. 305-306.
Abstract: (1982). Smooth Transitions in Conversational Interactions. The Journal of Social Psychology: Vol. 117, No. 2, pp. 305-306.
TL;DR: It is indicated that cooperative learning experiences, compared with competitive ones, promote more interpersonal attraction between handicapped and nonhandicapped students.
Abstract: Summary The effects of cooperative and competitive learning experiences on interpersonal attraction between handicapped and nonhandicapped, fourth-grade students were compared. Fifty-one students were assigned to conditions on a stratified random basis controlling for handicap, ability, and sex. They participated in two instructional units for 45 minutes a day for 15 instructional days. Cross-handicap interaction during daily free-time periods and a number of attitudes were measured. The results indicate that cooperative learning experiences, compared with competitive ones, promote more interpersonal attraction between handicapped and nonhandicapped students.
TL;DR: This article explored racial differences in initial interaction by focusing on the first four minutes of conversation in interracial and intraracial interactions, and found that black and whites significantly change initial interaction depending on the composition of the dyad.
Abstract: Summary The study explores racial differences in initial interaction by focusing on the first four minutes of conversation in interracial and intraracial interactions. A repeated measures design was used, with black male, black female, white male, and white female American Ss interacting with four stimulus persons orthogonally varied by race and sex. The Ss’ conversations were unobtrusively recorded and the content analyzed to determine the number and types of questions asked and the length of Ss speaking time. The results indicate that blacks and whites significantly change initial interaction depending on the composition of the dyad. In addition, males and females varied question patterns depending on the partner's race. The results suggest that initial interaction for blacks and whites may be governed by different conversational rules.
TL;DR: In this article, the Eysenck/Rokeach/Kerlinger theory that social attitudes are two dimensional suffers from disagreement about what the second dimension should be called and how it should be measured.
Abstract: Summary The Eysenck/Rokeach/Kerlinger theory that social attitudes are two dimensional suffers from disagreement about what the second dimension should be called and how it should be measured. The present work tests the proposal that there is a dimension of libertarian/authoritarian attitudes orthogonal to radicalism/conservatism. A set of items designed to maximize the likelihood of such dimensions appearing was administered to a random postal sample of Californians. No real evidence of the proposed second dimension appeared. It was concluded that authoritarianism is a personality variable only.
TL;DR: There were striking similarities in Japanese and American children's ratings, even though the incidences of individual events were quite divergent, and grade variations indicated that the older children experienced more events and more stress.
Abstract: Summary An earlier study of American children's ratings of 20 upsetting life events was replicated in Tokyo with 248 fourth, fifth, and sixth graders. The Japanese children were also found to make distinguishing judgments of the perceived stressfulness, which bore little general relationship with their sex, grade, or experience. There were striking similarities in Japanese and American children's ratings (r, .91 for the scale values, .80 for Q values), even though the incidences of individual events were quite divergent. In terms of the total number, as well as of the cumulative stress value, of the events experienced by individual children, cultural differences were not statistically significant. Regardless of culture, grade variations indicated that the older children experienced more events and more stress. Significant sex differences were detected only in Japan, which suggest that the boys were under more pressure than the girls.
TL;DR: In this paper, the anonymous-hood condition was compared to the identifiable condition, and it was found that helping was significantly slower and significantly less likely in the anonymous condition than in the identifiable one.
Abstract: Summary Milgram has suggested that urban dwellers are overloaded with sensory input. They adapt to this situation by ignoring low priority inputs. This would cause urban people to be anonymous, and possibly affect their willingness to help. In Study 1, it was argued that anonymous people are freed from social pressure to behave normatively, and hence, it was predicted that anonymity would discourage helping behavior. In a laboratory setting, groups of three strangers (one S and two confederates), supposedly taking part in an ESP study, witnessed an emergency. Groups in the anonymous-hood condition wore hoods and lab coats, while those in the identifiable condition wore ordinary clothes and introduced themselves to one another. A third set of groups (identifiable-hood) served as a control for the effects of the hoods per se. As predicted, helping was significantly slower and significantly less likely in the anonymous-hood condition than in the identifiable condition. In the second study, the overload notio...
TL;DR: In this article, Love of Animals and Love of People: The Journal of Social Psychology: Vol. 116, No. 2, pp. 299-300, 1982, p.
Abstract: (1982). Love of Animals and Love of People. The Journal of Social Psychology: Vol. 116, No. 2, pp. 299-300.
TL;DR: In this article, the psychoanalytic theory of preoedipal fixation predicts that person perception is affected by basic characterological variables, such as perceptual accuracy of nurturing figures, while a tendency to perceive authority as very different from oneself is hypothesized to be a function of anality.
Abstract: Summary The psychoanalytic theory of preoedipal fixation predicts that person perception is affected by basic characterological variables. Specifically, perceptual accuracy of nurturing figures is expected to be a function of orality, while a tendency to perceive authority as very different from oneself is hypothesized to be a function of anality. Thirty-one men and 24 women were given person perception scales, and their fixation scores were determined by Rorschach content analysis. The oral hypothesis was confirmed for women only, while the anal was confirmed for men only.
TL;DR: In this article, the authors examined the impact of special education labels and students' behavior on both teachers' expectations and their behavioral intentions, and found that only the emotionally disturbed label and level of student achievement significantly influenced teachers’ expectations.
Abstract: Summary In order to examine the impact of special education labels and students’ behavior on both teachers’ expectations and their behavioral intentions, 75 high school teachers were asked to evaluate a ninth grade student as described in a school psychologist's report. The experiment was a 4 × 2 × 2 factorial design in which diagnostic labels, levels of student achievement, and sex of S were studied. Results indicated that only the emotionally disturbed label and level of student achievement significantly influenced teachers’ expectations; none of the independent variables significantly influenced teachers’ behavioral intentions.