Showing papers in "Social Work in 2008"

The presidential election.

Abstract: In this editorial I feel compelled to write a general commentary about the presidential election. It is with great awe that I observe the level of competition presently taking place. The reasons to feel this way are numerous. Three impress me the most. First, one aspect that has certainly been inspiring is that no one is to be counted out. All three main presidential candidates, Senators Clinton, McCain, and Obama (in alphabetical order) had at some point been counted out for being too young or too willing to cross the aisle to seek compromise, or for being a woman, an African American, or a Vietnam veteran and former POW, and the list of reasons and naysayers goes on and on yet, these three individuals are still in the race. This is an important lesson for all of us seeking to improve the life of the world--whether addressing social or environmental issues, we should never give up. A second exciting aspect of this election is that it appears that it will come down to a race in which every eligible person who can vote must vote and every vote must be counted. Although it is disappointing that the percentage of people who vote is nowhere near what it should be and that not every vote has been counted in recent elections, there is hope that more and more people are registering to vote and that closer attention will be paid to properly counting every vote. In the context of every vote counting, I remember the sense of fair accompli many of my friends and I experienced in Hawaii during elections because the votes of a small state like Hawaii, with its fewer corresponding delegates, did not appear to carry much weight; all of that changed as a result of the past three elections in which the votes of the people in Hawaii certainly counted. It seems that small states once again are well poised to play another key role in the election of the Democratic candidate and in the final contest. I believe this is good for the country. The third exciting aspect of the election is the opportunity for a new administration to improve the quality of life for the world. The new person will have his or her work cut out tackling such issues as unemployment, poverty, terrorism, racism, nuclear proliferation, global warming, pollution, human rights, and so forth. This person will also have the opportunity to continue facilitating the country's ability to create and innovate in all aspects of our lives, from improving health and mental health care accessibility and delivery to building safer and environmentally friendlier vehicles, and making significant advances in stem cell research, among many other social, technological, and scientific transformations. …

Child Welfare Worker Characteristics and Job Satisfaction: A National Study

Abstract: The education, recruitment, training, and retention of a quality child welfare workforce is critical to the successful implementation of public policy and programs for the nation's most vulnerable children. Yet, national information about child welfare workers has never been collected. The National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-Being is a study of children who are investigated for child maltreatment that also offers information about the child welfare workers (unweighted N = 1,729) who serve them in 36 states and 92 counties. These cases represent the national population of child welfare workers, estimated at more than 50,000, serving children approximately 12 months after a case was opened. Child welfare workers having any graduate or social work degree in a nonurban setting were more satisfied than their peers. Regression results indicate that worker satisfaction is associated with quality of supervision and urban setting but does not have a clearly independent relationship with having a degree in social work. Practice implications are discussed.

Moving toward Culturally Competent Practice with Muslims: Modifying Cognitive Therapy with Islamic Tenets

Abstract: Relatively little information exists on the provision of culturally competent services to Muslims, in spite of the growing presence of this population in the United States. Consequently, the authors discuss a number of therapeutic approaches in light of their level of congruence with common Islamic values. Psychodynamic approaches, for example, may not be as congruent as cognitive approaches. Although cognitive therapy may be relatively consistent with Islamic values, the self-statements that are central to this modality are often packaged in secular terminology that is inconsistent with Islamic norms. To provide culturally relevant services, practitioners must unwrap the secular terminology used to express the underlying therapeutic precepts and then repackage the precepts in terminology that reflects Islamic teaching. The authors conclude by offering a number of examples to illustrate the construction of statements that reflect Islamic values.

Race and Hospital Diagnoses of Schizophrenia and Mood Disorders

Abstract: Disparities in mental health services are currently the focus of consumers, providers, policymakers, and researchers (Dougherty, 2004; Snowden, 2003). This attention stems in part from the President's New Freedom Commission on Mental Health (2003), which formulated the goal of eliminating disparities in mental health services as one of six interrelated goals necessary to transform America's mental health system. Studies have consistently shown that African Americans are disproportionately represented in state psychiatric hospitals and have raised questions about bias in involuntary hospitalization derived from ethnic and racial stereotypes (Lawson, Hepler, Holladay, & Cuffel, 1994; Milazzo-Sayre et al., 2001; Snowden & Cheung, 1990). Although the percentage of people receiving treatment in state psychiatric hospitals has drastically declined under deinstitutionalization, in comparison with all other mental health organizations, state psychiatric hospitals still provide the highest percentage of inpatient psychiatric services in the United States. In the year 2000, state psychiatric hospitals provided care for 30 percent of the inpatient population, an estimated 54,808 people (Manderscheid et al., 2004). About one-third of the admissions to state psychiatric hospitals involve individuals with schizophrenia (Milazzo-Sayre et al., 2004). Several studies on state psychiatric hospitals have reported higher rates of diagnosis of schizophrenia among African American clients than among white clients (Flaskerud & Hu, 1992; Lawson et al., 1994; Pavkov, Lewis, & Lyons, 1989; Snowden & Cheung, 1990). Strakowski and colleagues (1993), for example, found that African American clients were five times more likely than were white clients to be diagnosed with schizophrenia. However, research on the prevalence of mental disorders in the general population has found no significant difference in the rate of schizophrenia between the African American population and the white population when socioeconomic status is controlled (Keith, Regier, & Rae, 1991). The higher rates of schizophrenia diagnosis among African Americans is referred to as "overdiagnosis" (Snowden & Cheung) and has been recognized as a significant disparity in mental health services (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [HHS], 1999; HHS, 2001). Cultural differences between mental health clinicians and African American clients, clinician bias, and racial differences in symptom presentations have been suggested as possible determinants for overdiagnosis of schizophrenia (Lawson et al.; Flaskerud & Hu; Snowden, 2003; Strakowski et al., 1993; Whaley, 1997). The relationship between race and psychiatric hospital diagnoses is investigated in the present study. LITERATURE REVIEW Overdiagnosis of schizophrenia among African Americans is believed to increase the risks of inappropriate interventions in terms of treatment with the wrong medications; specifically treatment with antipsychotic medications instead of antidepressants (Lawson, 1996). Once diagnosed with schizophrenia, African American clients are at higher risks than are white clients for receiving both excessive prescribed dosages of medications (Walkup et al., 2000) and older rather than newer medications (Kuno & Rothbard, 2002; Mallinger, Fisher, Brown, & Lamberti, 2006; Mark, Palmer, Russo, & Vasey, 2003). Overdiagnosis of schizophrenia is generally believed to occur in conjunction with three broad factors: (1) underdiagnosis of mood disorders in African Americans, (2) co-occurring substance abuse or dependence, and (3) client characteristics (Adebimpe, 1994; Baker & Bell, 1999; Neighbors, Trierweiler, Ford, & Muroff, 2003; Strakowski et al., 1993). Several studies on race and diagnosis of schizophrenia have used unstructured or semistructured clinical interviews to diagnose psychiatric disorders (Neighbors et al., 2003; Neighbors et al. …

Sexual Trafficking in the United States: A Domestic Problem with Transnational Dimensions

Abstract: The trafficking of young women and children for prostitution and other forms of sexual exploitation is one of the most significant human rights abuses in contemporary society. In keeping with the social work profession's commitment to social justice, this article examines the issue of sexual trafficking in the United States. The transnational scope of the problem is discussed along with the means that traffickers use to recruit, transport, and initiate victims from around the world into the sex industry in the United States. Some legislative responses to the problem are discussed, and a number of suggestions are offered to help social workers advocate on behalf of some of the most vulnerable and oppressed people in the global community.

The Person-in-Environment Approach: Professional Ideology and Practice of Social Workers in Israel

Abstract: The aim of this study was to explore the extent to which the person-in-environment approach is part of the professional ideology of social workers in Israel and the degree to which they actualize it in their professional practice. The study examines the perceived importance of various goals of the social work profession and the perceived fittingness of diverse social work activities, actual professional activities, practice levels, and perceived attainment of social work goals. Based on the responses of 400 social workers from a wide variety of social services agencies in Israel, the results indicate that ideologically, the workers place a dual focus on the individual and society, with focus on the individual somewhat stronger. However, in practice the social dimension is marginal and the person-in-environment approach is hardly evident.

Suicidal Ideation and Attempts among Sexual Minority Youths Receiving Social Services

Abstract: The increased risk of suicidal ideation and attempts among sexual minority youths have been documented in studies using both convenience samples and representative community samples. However, as most youths do not access social services, these studies do not necessarily represent the sexual minority youths that community-based social workers may encounter in their day-to-day practice. As such, the present study on risk and protective factors related to suicidality surveyed 182 sexual minority youths (14 to 21 years of age) who sought assistance at a community-based social services agency in Denver. Similar to existing literature, the findings suggest that risk factors related to suicidality include hopelessness, methamphetamine use, homelessness, and in-school victimization. However, unlike studies of the general youth population, this study found that African American and male sexual minority youths were not at a lower risk of suicidality than sexual minority youths who were, respectively, white or female. In addition, our findings suggest that the presence of gay-straight alliances in schools may function as a protective resource for sexual minority youths. Implications for social work practice are discussed.

A National Study Predicting Licensed Social Workers' Levels of Political Participation: The Role of Resources, Psychological Engagement, and Recruitment Networks

Abstract: Social workers have a rich history of working in a political context on behalf of various social causes and client populations. This commitment to political advocacy is documented in the NASW (2000) Code of Ethics and the Council on Social Work Education's (CSWE) (2002) curriculum policy statements for baccalaureate and master's degree programs. However, some have argued that this commitment to social and political action is not carried out in practice, and in recent years the social work profession has been accused of neglecting its commitment to social and political action and of being more committed to private practice and efforts to enhance the status of the profession (Abramovitz & Bardill, 1993; Figueira-McDonough, 1993; Haynes & Mickelson, 2006; Reeser & Epstein, 1987, 1990; Specht & Courtney, 1994). According to Alexander (1982), instead of participating in the process wholeheartedly, the social work profession has historically had a "love-hate relationship" with politics. Though many agree that social work is inherently political, since the beginning of the profession social workers have debated how political the profession should be and tensions have emerged between clinical-oriented social workers (micro-changers) and those with a social policy focus (macro-changers). There is a substantial body of research on Americans' participation in the political process. However, research on social workers' political participation is sparse, which may be an indication of the profession's neglect of this domain of practice. The social work literature is full of studies evaluating social workers' clinical interventions, but strikingly few have assessed social workers' political advocacy efforts or how well schools of social work are preparing students for policy work. Previous studies have evaluated how politically active social workers are, but these studies are primarily descriptive in nature; only one has attempted to explain why some social workers are more active than others (Hamilton & Fauri, 2001). This study fills a gap in the current knowledge base regarding licensed social workers' political participation. Political scientists have studied extensively the degree to which people participate in the political process and the factors that influence whether they participate. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the factors that may affect licensed social workers' political participation by testing Verba, Schlozman, and Brady's (1995) citizen participation model, which is a comprehensive model developed to explain why citizens become involved in politics. In other words, this study attempts to determine why some licensed social workers participate politically, whereas others do not. LITERATURE REVIEW Research on social workers' political participation is sparse. In 1981, Wolk observed that the social work literature suggested a need for the profession to become more active in the legislative process, "even though the extent and quality of the political activism of social workers have never been documented" (p. 283). Only nine studies have been conducted on social workers' political participation, which makes it difficult to reach any definitive conclusions. Six of these studies are of professional social workers (Epstein, 1969; Ezell, 1993; Hamilton & Fauri, 2001; Parker & Sherraden, 1992; Reeser, 1986; Wolk, 1981), whereas three (Andrews, 1998; Pawlak & Flynn, 1990; Salcido & Seck, 1992) are of various subsets of social workers (that is, executive directors, NASW chapters, child and family services workers). Generally, these studies have found that social workers are more politically active than the general population and at least as active as other professional groups (Andrews, 1998; Ezell, 1993; Hamilton & Fauri, 2001; Parker & Sherraden, 1992; Wolk, 1981). Although social workers are more likely to vote, contact legislators by letter or by phone, and belong to organizations that take public stands, they are less likely to engage in more direct political behaviors such as volunteering for a political campaign, contributing financially to a campaign, or testifying before a legislative committee (Andrews, 1998; Ezell, 1993; Hamilton & Fauri, 2001; Parker & Sherraden, 1992; Wolk, 1981). …

Evidence-Based Practice in Mental Health Care to Ethnic Minority Communities: Has Its Practice Fallen Short of Its Evidence?

Abstract: Evidence-based practice (EBP) has contributed substantially to the advancement of knowledge in the treatment and prevention of adult mental health disorders. A fundamental assumption, based on documented evidence of effectiveness with certain populations, is that EBP is equally effective and applicable to all populations. However, small sample sizes of ethnic minority populations in randomized clinical trials prevent strong and clear conclusions about the effectiveness and generalizability of EBP with regard to people of color. In addition, the appropriateness of EBPs to ethnic minority communities has rarely been investigated. This article critically examines the applicability and dissemination of adult mental health EBP to diverse ethnic minority populations. It highlights limitations of EBP rooted in its epistemological narrowness, exclusion of communities of color, and lack of cultural competence and examines whether the practice of EBP has overstepped its evidence. This article presents a framework characterized by pathways of epistemological partnership and substantive inclusion of racial and ethnic minority groups to facilitate the promotion of culturally responsive EBPs and to inform mental health practice and policy implementation.

Perceptions of Vietnamese Fathers' Acculturation Levels, Parenting Styles, and Mental Health Outcomes in Vietnamese American Adolescent Immigrants

Abstract: Vietnamese adult and adolescent immigrants in the United States acculturate to the Western culture at different rates. MostVietnamese parents tend to use the authoritarian parenting method in which dictatorial approaches are enforced, possibly leading to family conflicts and mental health issues. By means of the Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale, the Parental Authority Questionnaire, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Inventory, this exploratory study surveyed 290Vietnamese American adolescents in a major metropolitan area to examine the relationship between their fathers' acculturation levels and parenting styles and the relationships among parenting styles and self-esteem levels and depression scores of the adolescents. Findings revealed that most of the adolescents perceived that their fathers have not acculturated to the U.S. culture and continue to practice the traditional authoritarian parenting style, regardless of the amount of time spent in the United States. Furthermore, results indicate that adolescents who perceived their fathers as using the authoritarian parenting style reported lower levels of self-esteem and higher depression scores when compared with those who perceived their fathers as using the authoritative parenting style.

Kin Networks and Poverty among African Americans: Past and Present

Abstract: Trends in social welfare policy and programs place increasing expectations on families to provide members with various forms of material and socioemotional support. The historic ability of kin networks of many African Americans to provide such support has been compromised by long-term community and family poverty. The potential mismatch between the expectations of social welfare systems for kin support and the actual functional capacities of kin networks places African Americans living in poverty at great risk of chronic poverty and its long-term multiple consequences. This article reviews historical and contemporary research on the structure and function of African American kin networks. On the basis of evidence of functional decline, the authors argue that social workers must re-examine the a priori assumption of viable kin networks as a reliable source of resilience among African Americans living in poverty. Social workers must focus assessment at all levels of practice on a variety of aspects of kin networks to make accurate judgments about not only the availability of resources, but also the perceived costs and benefits of participation in exchange for resources.

Demographic Trends in Social Work over a Quarter-Century in an Increasingly Female Profession

Abstract: This article depicts the changing demographic portrait of social work education in the United States from 1974 through 2000 and considers the demographic shifts in the profession of social work. During this period, BSW and joint MSW-BSW programs increased from 150 to 404, MSW programs increased from 79 to 139, and social work doctoral programs increased from 29 to 67. BSW graduates increased by 24 percent to almost 12,000, MSW graduates grew by almost 90 percent to over 15,000, and doctoral graduates increased by 44 percent to only 229. From 1974 to 2000, people of color represented increasing proportions of social work graduates to almost 30 percent of BSW graduates, 26 percent of MSW graduates, and 19 percent of social work PhD graduates. By 2000, the proportion of women earning social work degrees had grown to 88 percent at the BSW, 85 percent at the MSW, and 73 percent at the PhD levels, and women accounted for almost two-thirds of social work faculty. The most dynamic trends within the composition of the profession are the substantial increases in the proportion of women faculty, and among MSW graduates, a decrease in the proportion of men from 43 percent in 1960 to 15 percent in 2000. Findings suggest that issues of racial, ethnic, and gender representation in particular merit discussion within the profession.

Exploring Cultural Tensions in Cross-Cultural Social Work Practice

Abstract: Discussion of cultural tension in the social work literature is piecemeal. As part of a grounded theory study, this article reports some major findings on cultural tensions experienced by 30 frontline social workers. Cultural tensions caused by cultural similarities and differences among social workers, clients, organizations, and society are multifaceted. Social workers, however, are always at the center of the tensions. Findings indicate that the social work profession may need to consider the neutrality claim of the profession, the different experience of ethnic minority social workers, and the need of critical reflexivity for reflective practitioners. Implications for social work practice, social work education for ethnic minority social workers, and social work research are discussed.

Available Supports and Coping Behaviors of Mental Health Social Workers Following Fatal and Nonfatal Client Suicidal Behavior

Abstract: Research indicates that mental health social workers risk being confronted with fatal and nonfatal client suicidal behaviors during professional practice. Although reactions to client suicidal behavior have been documented, there is little empirical evidence about coping behaviors and available supports following client suicidal behavior. This study explores types of supports available, perceived effectiveness of support resources, and coping behaviors of 285 mental health social workers who experienced either fatal or nonfatal client suicidal behavior. Factors predicting positive and negative coping were also explored. Predictors of positive coping included increased levels of secondary traumatic stress, the availability of family and friends, group therapy, religion, older age, and male gender. Predictors of negative coping were increased levels of secondary traumatic stress, male gender, having support from family and friends, and the lack of administrative support. Future research recommendations and implications for social work administrators and practitioners are discussed. Language: en

Mental Health in College Athletics: It's Time for Social Work to Get in the Game

Abstract: The mission of the social work profession is to enhance human well-being and to help meet the basic human needs of all people, with particular attention to empowering people who are vulnerable, oppressed, and living in poverty (NASW, 2000).When thinking of vulnerable populations, social work theorists, researchers, and practitioners are not likely to think about college athletics. In part because student-athletes are not considered to be in need because of their physical prowess and their privileged, albeit temporary, status. College sports is one avenue used by adolescents who come from hazardous environments where crime, gang involvement, and poor secondary educational conditions have left them vulnerable (Edwards, 1995). However, just because student-athletes earn the right to attend elite universities, their vulnerability does not diminish. For some African American and international student-athletes, the journey toward empowerment is even more complex because they are oftentimes imported from communities that are very different from the predominately white universities they represent (Hawkins, 2000). The lack of family support, absence of a community, dearth of trusted role models, and student-athlete stereotypes make adapting to their new environment difficult. The case of Anthony Vontoure, a former University of Washington football player, supports the notion that student-athletes are a vulnerable population in need of social work intervention. Vontoure, a cornerback with NFL talent, was dismissed from the football team after frequent outbursts, uncontrollable anger, smashed windows, and conflicts with coaches. On the evening of May 31, 2002, while Vontoure was staying with a friend, the police were summoned to the apartment because Vontoure said he was frightened that little green men in masks wanted to kill him, and his roommates feared he was having a nervous breakdown (Miller, 2002). University of Washington coaches and officials claimed that Vontoure was diagnosed with a bipolar disorder, prescribed medication, and saw counselors. To the contrary, his mother, who battled two bouts of depression, said she was not informed of Anthony's diagnosis and saw no signs that he was on medication. One coach surmised that Vontoure was off his medication when the All-America candidate shared he did not have any money. Five officers were needed to restrain Vontoure, but after his breathing changed from rapid to shallow, he was transported to a local medical center where he was pronounced dead. According to Vontoure's geology professor, "I wasn't surprised something ill overcame him. He was carrying an enormous weight" (Miller p. 1). For student-athletes, earning an academic degree entails more than coursework as evidenced over the past several years by the increase in mental health issues on college campuses (Benton, Robertson, Tseng, Newton, & Benton, 2003). The perception is that student-athletes are immune to the difficulties other college students face; the reality is that they may be at even greater risk of poor mental health because of the pressure of commercialized college sports (Sack, 2001). It is estimated that 10 percent to 20 percent of the 360,000 college student-athletes suffer from depression (Gardiner, 2006), student-athletes suffer from depression more often than their non-student-athlete peers (Maniar, Chamberlain, & Moore, 2005), and student-athletes with positive psychiatric symptoms have higher rates of substance abuse (Miller, Miller, Verhegge, Linville, & Pumariega, 2002). The research foci and findings imply that social work is an appropriate profession to promote student-athlete development and to fill an apparent gap in student-athlete services. ATHLETIC DEPARTMENTS RESPOND A growing number of athletic departments recognize the need to address mental health issues. A handful of Division I athletic departments have hired in-house sport psychologists, others refer student-athletes to sport psychologists, and some have created a mental health component within athletics. …

Has Social Work Met Its Commitment to Native Hawaiians and Other Pacific Islanders? A Review of the Periodical Literature

Abstract: Native Hawaiians and other Pacific Islanders (NHOPIs) were recognized in the 2000 U.S. census as a distinct racial minority group, with unique histories, values, and traditions. The profession of social work, with its historical commitment to social and cultural diversity, has begun to establish a knowledge base on this population in the periodical literature. In a review of literature published from 1995 to 2004, 32 articles were found in 23 journals. This represents 0.64 percent of the more than 5,000 articles published in these journals. Much of this literature, however, combined information on this population with that of Asian Americans, thereby masking the distinctiveness of Pacific Islanders. These results suggest that although social work has demonstrated a commitment to NHOPIs by beginning to establish a knowledge base, refinement and expansion of knowledge is still needed. The authors recommend three steps to refine this knowledge base: (1) increase the number of publications, (2) disaggregate data so that Asian Americans will be considered separately from NHOPIs, and (3) ensure that information on this population be anchored in cultural values and culturally based models of practice.

Openness in Adoption: What We Know So Far—A Critical Review of the Literature

Abstract: What are the factors that keep adoptive parents and birth parents connected and sustain their kinship relationships over time? This is the central research question critically reviewed across studies dating from 1987 to 2000. A preliminary review of the literature revealed 15 to 20 studies within this 13-year scope limited to the perspective of the adoptive parents. This review includes 14 of those studies in which contact took place with children as well as those in which the adults had contact and the child was not aware of it. Factors that facilitate the kinship network in maintaining connection over time are identified and implications for future research and practice are discussed. Findings should be approached with cautious optimism given the significant methodological limitations of the majority of this literature.

Conation: A Missing Link in the Strengths Perspective.

Abstract: Conation is action derived from instinct, purposeful mode of striving, volition. It is a conscious effort to carry out self-determined acts and, as such, may result in the same goal being approached by different individuals through the use of different actions. It is a critical, yet neglected aspect of the "tripartite" human mind, which is composed of cognitive, affective, and conative elements. Because most social workers are not familiar with the concept, client behavior that represents action toward a goal might not be understood or might be misunderstood. A true strengths-based approach to social work requires this understanding. The authors use case studies to describe conation and to demonstrate its applicability. They present examples of how clients' and social workers' conative ability are important to the assessment and intervention process and describe implications for research.

The Immigration Debate: Lessons for Social Workers

Abstract: For the past several years, considerable public attention has been paid to what has now commonly been referred to as the immigration debate. The immigration debate can be conceptualized as a social dialogue regarding the legal status of undocumented people living in the United States, and what "should" be done about future undocumented immigrants. The total number of undocumented people is unknown, although an estimated 12 million undocumented people are currently living and working in this country (Pew Hispanic Center [PHC], 2006). Undocumented residents come from dozens of countries, yet primarily from Latin America, in particular Mexico and Central America. The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (2005) noted that 92 percent of the 1.2 million foreign nationals apprehended by immigration officials were from Mexico. Whether this number represents an actual proportion of the number of undocumented citizens, or whether Mexican nationals are more likely "profiled," is unclear. We have observed that there is paucity of discussions in the social work literature regarding the needs and concerns of undocumented residents. Perhaps reflecting the ambivalence of society in general, social work has not been as involved, as it has been historically, in debates that affect undocumented people. This may, in part, be a result of the unresolved conflict social workers face between the increasing legal sanctions against providing services to undocumented people and the social justice values of the profession. The purpose of this article is to briefly present key lessons for social workers that have been brought to the forefront by this debate. Although the social discourse regarding the immigration debate may be complex, controversial, and challenging, active engagement in this discourse may provide social workers an opportunity for careful reexamination of our professional values, mission, and aims. THE IMMIGRATION DEBATE Clarifying Our Values The recent immigration debates have challenged social workers to explore their own sense of values about the clients that we serve. Over the past several decades, social workers have been moving toward an increased alignment with the medical model and its focus on pathology and disease. Consequently, empowerment and advocacy have become less prominent in social work discourse. This is evidenced by the decline in the number of social work programs offering macro practice sequence in schools of social work, as well as the paucity of social work jobs in advocacy. The immigration debate can help social workers to recommit to the protection and care of those who are vulnerable and in need of support. For instance, Furman and his colleagues (2007) found that social workers confront many ethical dilemmas in the face of legislation that limits the manner in which social workers can provide services to undocumented Latino immigrants. These ethical dilemmas included having to choose between professional ethics and legal mandates, protection of the disadvantaged and oppressed populations and protection of the agency, protection of vulnerable populations and devotion to veracity, among others. Reassessing Our Mission and Our History The early roots of the social work profession can be found in the stories of social workers who advocated for the rights of the most disenfranchised people in society. Early social workers fought alongside other social reformers to protect children and other workers from difficult and dangerous work and life conditions. Today, the mission of social work has shifted more toward the amelioration of psychosocial ailments versus social change, human rights, and justice. Social work's focus on clinical-oriented services as opposed to advocacy is evidenced by the fact that a majority of social workers today provide psychotherapy or are employed in other types of clinical or individually oriented services. The immigration debate focuses on a group of people who often experience difficult work and life conditions, not because of personal deficiencies, but because of structural forces that demand cheap labor and simultaneously restrict legal means for citizenship (Organista, 2007). …

Our nation's immigrants in peril: an urgent call to social workers.

Abstract: Social workers have always been at the forefront of work with immigrants. From our profession's earliest days working with immigrants at the Hull House in Chicago to the current immigration debate, our commitment to social justice has driven both our service and policy positions regarding immigration. Our values have not changed, neither have some of the more divisive and destructive aspects of the immigration debate. Historically a nation created by immigrants seeking respect for individual freedoms, the United States has a history of anti-immigrant rhetoric and public policies criminalizing immigrants or viewing them as a threat to U.S. security. The same themes that were raised in the 1800s are being raised today, but now with a focus on Latino immigrants and under the jurisdiction of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Since March 2003, the functions of the Immigration and Naturalization Service were transferred to the new DHS as three bureaus: Citizenship and Immigration Services, Customs and Border Protection, and Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE). Following immigration protests in May 2006, DHS and ICE have increased their raids, arrests, and deportations, creating a hostile climate for all immigrants regardless of their legal status and making undocumented immigrants, their families, and communities especially vulnerable. Given the heated debate on immigration, it would seem that the United States would have extremely high numbers of immigrants. In fact, only 11.7 percent of the current population is foreign born (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004), and of them 30 percent are naturalized citizens (Passel, Capps, & Fix, 2004). Children in immigrant families make up 20 percent of U.S. children, and four-fifths of them were born in the United States and are therefore citizens. Although people from all nationalities immigrate to the United States, the majority of immigrants are from Latin America. In fact, more than 53 percent of all foreign-born individuals are from Latin American countries, primarily Mexico (U.S. Census Bureau). Between 80 percent and 85 percent of the immigrants from Mexico initially enter the country as undocumented immigrants (Passel, 2005). It is this undocumented population that has led to controversial state and federal proposals. NATIONWIDE PROPOSALS Across the country, state legislatures and localities are grappling with immigrant policy. In 2007, more than 1,400 bills were filed addressing immigrant policy at the state level (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2007). Much of the state legislation has focused on increasing employer sanctions and denying public benefits on the basis of immigration status. In Texas, a bill was filed that would deny public benefits, such as state health insurance, to children born in the United States to undocumented immigrants. Arizona passed legislation to create harsh employer sanctions for businesses who hire undocumented workers. We believe both these bills are an attack on the Latino populations in these states. In addition to state legislation, the attack on immigrants has also surfaced within local communities. A suburb of Dallas, Texas, voted to prohibit landlords from renting to undocumented immigrants, who are primarily Latino in that area. When municipalities have moved to create local ordinances offering rights or protections to immigrants regardless of status, such as New Haven, Connecticut's, creation of a municipal card for city services or Chelsea, Massachusetts's, passing of a Sanctuary ordinance, ICE raids and detentions have immediately increased. Perhaps the most prominent debate over the past several years has occurred at the federal level. Ignited by fears of terrorism, immigration proposals have been considered that fail to balance security concerns with respect for constitutional protections, human rights, or equality. In 2005, Congress passed the Border Protection Anti-Terrorism and Illegal Immigration Control Act, which would have made it a crime to assist undocumented immigrants. …

Client Firearm Assessment and Safety Counseling: The Role of Social Workers

Abstract: Firearms constitute an environmental risk factor for suicide among all age groups. Although other professions have been urged to assess firearm availability and advocate for the removal of firearms of their clients, little is known about the practices and the techniques within the social work profession. The present study surveyed a random sample (N = 697) of Ohio licensed social workers (requiring a BSW) and Ohio licensed independent social workers (requiring an MSW and 3,000 hours of post-master's practice experience) on their attitudes, knowledge, and behaviors regarding client firearm assessment and safety counseling. Findings indicated that the majority of social workers in this study did not report assessing for firearms or counseling on firearm safety on a routine basis. Barriers included lack of training on risks, lack of risk awareness, discomfort with the topic, not social work responsibility, lack of time, and more important topics to discuss. The most influential variable positively related to firearm assessment and counseling behaviors among these social workers was reporting previous firearm safety training. Other variables included influential media, depressed client, and suicidal client.

Race, Resistance, and Restructuring: Emerging Skills in the New Social Services

Abstract: Since the introduction of the first neoliberal budgets in the mid-1980s, Canadian social service workers have had ample reason to resist changes in their work lives. Drawing on literature as well as on themes emerging from an intentionally diverse subset of data collected as part of a multiyear study, this article explores the resistance strategies of female, First Nations social workers and social workers of color in relation to changing work structures and power relations in their workplaces. Given their location in ethnically specific services and programs, racialized workers have been affected differently by restructuring and have, in turn, resisted these changes with different outcomes. Indeed, rather than the deskilling common to the sector, First Nations workers and workers of color have generated new, culturally sensitive practice skills. This article analyzes how the marginalized position of many workers of color and Aboriginal workers has shaped the kinds of resistance strategies they use within their paid and unpaid work in the restructured social services arena. The article explores the issue of unpaid work as an important but contradictory form of resistance among social workers. It concludes with suggestions for teaching and practicing in the new social services.

Development of a Family Intervention for Native Hawaiian Women with Cancer: A Pilot Study

Abstract: Native Hawaiian women have high cancer rates and low survival rates. As with other women, a major source of support for Native Hawaiian women is their families. This pilot study reports on the feasibility of providing and measuring a culturally appropriate intervention designed to help Native Hawaiian women and their families deal with cancer. The feasibility evaluation indicated that a major strength of the intervention was its incorporation of Hawaiian values and practices, and a major limitation reflected the difficulties in recruiting Native Hawaiians for research studies. Despite the small sample size, the six Native Hawaiian women and their 10 family members in the intervention group showed improved self-efficacy and coping when compared with the four Native Hawaiian women and their eight family members in the control group. Pilot study data established the feasibility and potential effectiveness of this culturally tailored intervention for Native Hawaiians, and feasibility findings will be useful in designing follow-up studies. Steps taken to incorporate cultural values into an intervention also provide a model for other social workers in developing culturally appropriate interventions for minority populations.

Social Work with Religious Volunteers: Activating and Sustaining Community Involvement.

Abstract: Even as the call for volunteer involvement in many arenas of community service is increasing (Grube & Piliavin, 2000), research studies report a decline in volunteerism among those long known for their service: older women (Gallagher, 1994; Phillips, Little, & Goodine, 2002), long-term service volunteers (Macduff, 2004), and retirees (Caro & Bass, 1997). Social work administrators have difficulty attracting sufficient volunteers for caseloads that include people who are marginalized, such as intravenous drug users and people with chronic mental illness (Marx, 1999). In the face of this decline in volunteerism, religious congregations continue to incubate and offer significant volunteer resources to their communities (Chaves, Konieczny, Beyerlein, & Barman, 1999). Social workers have a growing body of research that describes the extent of involvement of congregations in social service provision (Cnaan, Wineburg, & Boddie, 1999; Wineburg, 2001). Few studies help social workers understand the motivations of congregation volunteers and the challenges of working with them, however. Consequently, social workers have little guidance for effectively engaging, rewarding, and sustaining this major segment within the shrinking volunteer pool. LITERATURE REVIEW Congregation attendance is the best general predictor of involvement in volunteer service (Gerard, 1985; Greeley, 1997; Hoge, Zech, McNamara, & Donahue, 1996; L. D. Nelson & Dynes, 1976; Park & Smith, 2000; Smith, 2004; Wuthnow, 1995). Despite the common assumption that theologically conservative congregations are less concerned with social action and social programs than are theologically liberal congregations, Mock (1992) found no evidence of a direct relationship between congregations' theological conservatism or liberalism and their community service and social activism; all the Christian congregations he studied had a theological rationale for community involvement. Furthermore, whether theologically conservative or liberal, congregations' service programs target community members as recipients more often than their own congregants; they are not just taking care of their own (Boddie, Cnaan, & Dilulio, 2001). Congregations often work collaboratively, sending their members as volunteers to serve through community organizations and service coalitions. Chaves examined three common program types offered by congregations--food, housing, and homeless services--and found that only a minority (12 percent) of congregations administer their own programs in these areas. Typically, congregations support programs and activities operated by other social services organizations (Chaves, 1999). When compared with nonvolunteers, volunteers are more likely to be more highly educated (Chambre, 1984), to have higher incomes (Gronbjerg & Never, 2002; Park & Smith, 2000), to be working part-time (although retirement is not related to volunteering) (Gronbjerg & Never, 2002; Park & Smith, 2000), and to be married (Uslaner, 2002). Variables significantly associated with the decision to volunteer include previous volunteer experience (Caro & Bass, 1997; Chambre, 1987; Dye, Goodman, Roth, Bley, & Jensen, 1973); a religious identity passed on from parents (Park & Smith, 2000); more reflective disposition, less concern with material aspects of life, and greater need for contemplation and prayer (Gerard, 1985); better health and a greater preference for active pursuits rather than spending long periods of time watching television (Gerard, 1985); an attitude of forgiveness (Wuthnow, 2000); and simply being invited to volunteer (Bowman, 2004; Park & Smith, 2000; Roehlkepartain, Naftali, & Musegades, 2000). In addition, several factors appear to sustain volunteer involvement, including being connected with other volunteers (Cnaan, Boddie, Handy, Yancey, & Schneider, 2002; M. C. Nelson, 1999), receiving multiple forms of social support for the volunteer activity (Ashcraft & Kedrowicz, 2002), and having the opportunity to develop genuine relationships with service recipients (Lawrence, 2000). …

Training students for a shared traumatic reality.

Abstract: A shared reality is a situation in which both the intervener and the client are exposed to a similar threat. In the wake of the recent increase in acts of terror and natural disasters, both clinical and research literature have been focusing greater attention on the problems of a shared reality and the implications for the helping professions (Gibson & Iwaniec, 2003; Howard & Goelitz, 2004; Shamai, 2003). Findings indicate that under these circumstances, therapists feel their ability to help is impaired and they experience heightened work-related stress as a result of greater demands on their professional time, the sense that they are professionally unprepared for the situation, and the loss of boundaries between their personal and professional selves (Kretch, Ben-Yakar, Baruch, & Roth, 1997; Nuttman-Shwartz, Karniel-Lauer, & Dassa-Shindler, 2004). Consequently, there is also increased awareness of the need to prepare helping professionals for shared reality situations. Two methods are most commonly suggested to achieve this goal: (1) working with supervisors to help them manage stress and re-establish and enhance their confidence in their professional and personal capabilities and (2) conducting training workshops with an emphasis on practical skills (Fournier, 2002; Shamai, 2003). Moreover, it has been found that the most vulnerable population is young professionals lacking in experience of intervention in conditions of stress and trauma, particularly those who have undergone similar events in the past (Cunningham, 2003; Kirchberg, Neimeyer, & James, 1998). One such group is students who not only lack thorough training and sufficient professional knowledge, but also have yet to acquire experience of their own responses to providing help. In most cases, the basic curriculum of undergraduate social work studies includes no more than a theoretical course on the nature and effects of trauma aimed at providing the necessary foundation (Cunningham, 2003). Although some of the students' fieldwork may include involvement with clients who have experienced a traumatic event, most students still lack clinical experience and familiarity with the ramifications of treatment and the helping relationship in such cases. These students do not have a clear understanding of the meaning of secondary traumatization or adequate coping strategies. In addition, their ability to enjoy the advantages of a safe space is limited, as they are constantly being judged and graded. In the case of a shared reality, the students also experience a high level of anxiety resulting from their exposure to the stressful events. These circumstances constrain their capacity to bolster each other by expressing empathy and providing support. Indeed, students have been found to display a tendency for isolation, scapegoating, and interpersonal distance (Cunningham, 1999, 2004; Neumann & Gamble, 1995). Yet despite the unique features of this population, a review of the literature on training models indicates that the significance of students' exposure to trauma has yet to receive sufficient attention (Gibson & Iwaniec, 2003). The program described in this column was designed to train students for intervention in a shared stressful traumatic situation. By combining theoretical studies, practical training, and fieldwork, the program was aimed at enabling the containing and support environment the participants needed to function as both helpers and students. The shared reality in this case was the process of relocation necessitated by the disengagement program, Israel's withdrawal from the Gaza Strip and Northern Samaria in the summer of 2005. FIELDWORK Twenty college students were matched with adolescents in the regional school who expressed interest in participating in a "Big Brother/Big Sister" program. In other words, the college students were to function as friends and support figures for the teenagers. …

Low-Wage Maternal Employment and Parenting Style

Abstract: This three-year longitudinal study investigated whether low-wage employment was associated with improved psychological and parenting outcomes in a sample of 178 single mothers who were employed and unemployed current and former welfare recipients both before and subsequent to the passage of the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996. Participation in employment predicted fewer depressive symptoms and less negative parenting style over time. Employment at time 1 was associated with a reduced likelihood of receiving welfare in the interim between times 1 and 2, less financial strain at time 2, and (through these) a decrease in mothers' depressive symptoms at time 2. Fewer depressive symptoms at time 2, in turn, predicted less negative parenting style, net of the mothers' earlier demographic, mental health, and parenting characteristics. Mothers with higher education attainment were more likely to be employed (and to earn more) at both time points. Implications of these findings for welfare policies are discussed.

A social worker's reflections on power, privilege, and oppression.

Abstract: The pursuit of social justice is a core social work value (NASW, 2007). Social workers promote social justice by engaging in activities that promote equality of opportunity, challenge injustice, and advance social change, particularly on behalf of vulnerable and oppressed populations. This is easier said than done. Oppression and systems of power are extremely complex, multifaceted, and saturate our individual psyche and external environment. As social workers committed to social justice, how do we challenge and change these systems of power? How do we find a standpoint from which to act? Paulo Freire (1970) stated that a commitment to social justice requires a moral and ethical attitude toward equality and a belief in the capacity of people as agents who can transform their world. Furthermore, he stated that to create social change and to promote social justice, we must begin this process with ourselves--through a self-reflective process that examines the contradictions between our espoused values and our lived experience. We must believe that all people, both from dominant and targeted groups, have a critical role in dismantling oppression and generating a vision for a socially just future. For if only people from oppressed groups take on this responsibility, there is little hope that we will ever achieve our vision. As a social worker and an academic who identifies strongly with the profession of social work, I take these words of Freire and other scholars of social justice seriously. In 2001, I had the honor of participating in a presidential plenary panel at the Society for Social Work and Research Annual Conference. As part of this plenary, I presented an introduction that provided a reflection of who I am and how my social identities are affected by the dynamics of oppression and privilege. The speech was published later that year in Advances in Social Work (Spencer, 2001), and every year since I have taken the opportunity to further reflect on who I am at that particular moment in time. A lot has happened in the past seven years, and as my social identities have evolved and my understanding of them becomes increasingly complex, I find the need to contemplate again on the question, "Who am I?" My interests in issues of oppression, power, and privilege began with my own experiences as a person of color who has experienced racism. I identify primarily as Native Hawaiian, but I also identify as mixed race. As a person of color, I am often placed in a position in which I must process the disrespect I perceive or the assumptions that others make of me. For example, I know what it is like to be grabbed by the arm at a campus restaurant on my way to the restroom and be asked to bring people their drinks. I also know what it is like to seek the support of a friend following this incident and be told, "That could have happened to anyone." The most painful thing about racism is its invalidation, even more so than the incident itself. I hope for reconciliation, but I recall that reconciliation requires "truth." We are just beginning to learn about the truth of racism in this country and, thus, are still far from reconciliation. Among people of color, however, I have the privilege of light skin. I know this privilege has allowed me to be more trusted, accepted, and easily assimilated within the dominant culture. I have also been educated by the dominant culture and taught to think like the mainstream. I know how to speak "properly." Growing up as a Native Hawaiian educated in Hawaii under the U.S. educational system, I never heard the word "colonization." The spirituality of my ancestors was taught to me as mythology. Although I know there is much in my culture that I have lost, I still reap great benefits from my assimilation, including my ability to pursue higher education and ultimately my current employment at the University of Michigan. I was made palatable to the dominant culture. My education has moved me from my status as a child growing up in an impoverished neighborhood in Honolulu to a middle-class professional living in Ann Arbor. …

From ideological to competency-based: the rebranding and maintaining of medical social work's identity.

Abstract: Despite a history rich in patient care, case management, and knowledge-building, medical social work has limped through the past decade. Although there are still the occasional success stories about true heroes who have managed to not only persevere, but also thrive, their efforts have not been easily replicated by the masses. The medical social work community might benefit from taking an honest look at itself and the challenges the future holds. Presently we remain employees of host agencies that have been besieged by increasing expenses, nursing shortages, and third-party payers who continue to strangle reimbursements. Berger et al. (2003) reported that an increasing number of social work professionals are managed and supervised by nursing and other health care practitioners. To further exacerbate this challenge, social work's surface-level values are often perceived to be in juxtaposition with that of hospitals struggling to correct declining financial status. TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY CHALLENGES The challenges facing medical social work can be differentiated into three areas: the work environment, the traditional branding of the social work profession, and a resistance toward change. The Environment Many hospital-based social workers face the challenge of professionally residing in an ecosystem that does not naturally support social work life. First, it has long been noted that the medical social work department, even in its heyday, resided in a host agency. Although this was never meant to convey second-class citizenship, the responsibility lies with social work to evolve and align with the changing face of our hosts. Second, many social work managers run into the same gender bias and glass ceilings faced by other administrators. Furthermore, the social work manager (regardless of gender) is typically outside the loop of any naturally occurring "good old boys network." Perhaps not a group of which we are desirous of membership, it is still critical to note that there is a lack of institutional-based, natural mentors for social work leaders in health care. The literature often sites mentorship as an important predictor of career advancement (Goleman, 1998). For example, nursing has a well-developed career ladder and preceptorship program at most hospitals. This is not the case for social work. Typically, there are few incumbents at senior and executive levels of management who speak social work's language. Although social work interventions activities often drive patient satisfaction and cost savings, balance sheets are not set up to capture these contributions. Therefore, hearing our voice and translating our contributions are not instinctive. The Traditional Social Work Brand Typically, social workers are not inherently motivated by cookbook compliance with policy and procedure, but thrive on the ownership and ambiguity involved in the management of one's own case. As with most professions, social work candidates are likely guided toward the profession by talents, desires, and a goodness of fit (Buckingham & Coffman, 1999). However, efforts to market the profession have failed to convey an accurate image to the marketplace. From the serious media to television sit-corns, we are often portrayed as left-wing undereducated, do-gooders, lacking business and financial acuity. The profession reacts to the undereducated piece, but we seem to wear the counterculture label as a badge of honor. This is noble, but not necessarily strategic. Social work must protect against presenting itself along narrow, steadfast, ideological and political lines, with little regard for the diverse cultures and environments inhabited by its practitioners. This often results in a disconnect among academia, our host organizations, and practice realities. From a macro, organizational development prospective, we fail to align our talent, skill, and knowledge with the current needs of our employers. …

Acting on Our Values: Do Social Workers Volunteer?

Abstract: Volunteer activity among social workers is explored in this article. Anecdotal evidence suggests social workers are not major contributors of volunteer time. The overriding research questions of this descriptive-exploratory study are to what extent do social workers engage in volunteer activities, what factors influence their decisions to volunteer, and what are the types of activities in which they engage. Volunteerism is defined as giving of one's talent, time, and energy to individuals, groups, communities, or organizations without compensation. A 27-item survey specific to this study was devised. Mailing lists were procured from state licensing boards representing two states in each of 10 federal regions. Random sampling was used to proportionally sample 5 percent of approximately 77,000 licensed social workers; useable surveys numbered 1,544 from a sampling pool of 3,850, yielding a 40 percent response rate. The findings demonstrate that social workers have volunteered in the past but no longer choose to do so. Respondents believe that other people should give and volunteer but that social workers give enough through their poorly paid jobs and poor working conditions. Implications suggest that the very professionals who might serve as community role models potentially have the reverse influence in regard to promoting volunteerism.

Frances Kellor and the Americanization Movement

Abstract: Social work's current concern with topics such as ethnic sensitive practice, immigration, diversity, and assimilation (de Silva, 2006; Marsh, 2004) marks a rebirth of interest in issues that once dominated the thinking of early social work pioneers (Addams, 1961). This article reconsiders the career of Frances Kellor, a social work leader who early in the early 20th century championed many progressive causes, particularly those involving the civil rights, protection, and education of immigrants (Higham, 1973). At the peak of her influence in the decade leading up to and including World War I, Kellor was as well known nationally as such social work luminaries as Jane Addams and Florence Kelly. Her public renown declined swiftly in the decade after the war, and although she continued to build a distinguished social work career in the field of conflict management and arbitration, her accomplishments are little recognized today. We explore some of the reasons for this dismissal by history at the conclusion of this article. A LEADER OF MEN The phrase "a leader of men" was applied to Kellor by one of her admirers at the height of her fame (Kellor, 1921) and aptly describes her hard-driving personality. Even during her early years she showed the ability to rise above great adversity. She was born in 1873 in Columbus, Ohio. Her father deserted the family during Kellor's childhood, and her mother was forced to move to a rural area in Michigan and take work as a laundress. Kellor could not afford to finish high school and had to go to work for a local newspaper as a typesetter, eventually advancing to the position of investigative reporter. She caught the attention of two wealthy sisters, Mary and Frances Eddy, who helped to finance her education at Cornell University Law School, from which she graduated with a law degree in 1897. On the basis of her achievements, Kellor was granted a scholarship to study sociology and social work at the University of Chicago, where she lived at Hull House and earned supplementary income employed as a gymnastic instructor. Here she wrote her first scholarly article calling for equality in physical education for men and women. While at Chicago she did field work in southern prisons and used this experience as a basis for her first book, Experimental Sociology (published in 1901). In 1903 Kellor moved to New York and took up residence at the Henry Street settlement, where she embarked on a study of joblessness among women. This work helped to focus her concerns on the difficulties of immigrants and other minorities in gaining equal treatment and opportunity in U.S. society. Her work on behalf of immigrants eventually caught the attention of President Theodore Roosevelt, who sought Kellor's assistance in developing immigration policy during his administration. Several years later when Roosevelt was out of office, he again sought Kellor's help on formulating immigration policy ideas when he ran for president on the Progressive party ticket in 1912. In the years prior to World War I, Kellor became an often published and nationally known authority on immigration issues. She was especially prominent in organizing national efforts to help immigrants gain increased access and opportunities in U.S. society through Americanization citizenship programs. After the war, when interest in Americanization collapsed, she began an intensive study of mediation and arbitration methods of resolving domestic and international conflict. She became a national authority on these subjects, also publishing extensively in this area (Koesterer, 2002). Kellor died in New York in 1952. THE AMERICANIZATION MOVEMENT Although her involvement in the Americanization movement was only one aspect of Kellor's long and productive career, it has become the contribution for which she is best remembered (Miller, 1997). "Americanization" was a term used to describe early efforts in this country to quickly assimilate the newly arriving waves of immigrants into the fabric of American life. …