Showing papers in "The Journal of Technology and Teacher Education in 2002"

Learning to Notice: Scaffolding New Teachers’ Interpretations of Classroom Interactions

Abstract: Mathematics and science education reforms encourage teachers to base their instruction in part on the lesson as it unfolds in the classroom, paying particular attention to the ideas that students raise. This ability to adapt instruction in the moment requires that teachers be able to notice and interpret aspects of classroom interactions that are key to reform teaching. This paper defines what it means to “notice” in the context of reform and describes a multimedia tool designed to help teachers learn to do so. The authors then report on a study in which six mathematics and science teachers seeking secondary teaching certification used the software to examine teaching. The results suggest that use of the software helped the teachers to develop new ways to analyze instruction. Specifically, the teachers began to identify particular events in their classroom interactions as noteworthy, to more frequently use specific evidence to discuss these events, and to provide their own interpretations of these events. This research adds to our understanding of teacher cognition and also has implications for those who are designing and implementing teacher education in the context of reform. A key tenet of mathematics and science education reform is the creation of classroom environments in which teachers make pedagogical decisions in the midst of instruction. In the mathematics classroom, teachers and students are expected to listen carefully to one another’s ideas, with teachers adapting

Integrating Technology into the Classroom: Eight Keys to Success

Abstract: There are many issues related to the successful use of technology in the classroom. Some of the more salient include securing necessary annual funding, the development of dynamic plans, and decisions concerning platforms, hardware, T1 lines, software, and so forth. While these are perhaps the most obvious considerations, an often-overlooked but crucial determinant of whether technology succeeds or fails in the classroom is a less than obvious one…the teacher. While attention to choosing the appropriate hardware and software for the classroom is prerequisite, it is the skill and attitude of the teacher that determines the effectiveness of technology integration into the curriculum.

Gender Differences in Teacher Computer Acceptance.

Abstract: Teachers’ computer acceptance is an important factor to the successful use of computers in education. This article explores the gender differences in teacher computer acceptance. The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) was used as the framework to determine if such differences are present. Survey questionnaires were administered to 186 preservice teachers, the questionnaire consists of two independent variables (perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use), together with the dependent variable (intention to use). The results of model testing using LISREL indicated that the two independent variables, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use, directly affect the intention to computer use as stated in the TAM. Furthermore, significant gender differences in computer acceptance were also found: (a) perceived usefulness will influence intention to use computers more strongly for females than males, (b) perceived ease of use will influence intention to use computers more strongly for females than males, and (c) perceived ease of use will influence perceived usefulness more strongly for males than females. Impacts and implications to teacher professional development are also discussed.

Technology Integration: Closing the Gap Between What Preservice Teachers are Taught To Do and What They Can Do

Abstract: The digital divide exists not only between those who have technology and those who do not. A gap also exists between what we teach preservice teachers about technology and what we expect them to do with technology as classroom teachers. This gap is easily seen between the knowledge and skills preservice teachers have acquired through the required technology course, and the knowledge and skills they are expected to possess to successfully integrate technology in their elementary methods classes. This study was conducted with a group of 26 self-selected preservice teachers to examine this gap between teaching the use of technology and the use of technology in learning to teach. The study investigated whether the integration of technology practices into the elementary method courses for preservice teachers would positively influence their self-reported confidence levels in integrating specific technologies in elementary classrooms. Teaching preservice teachers how to integrate specific technologies into their teaching methods helped increase their level of confidence. The findings indicated that the opportunity for preservice teachers to be exposed to the technologies while learning teaching practices in their method courses and to see the technologies modeled by the faculty increased the preservice teachers' confidence level. TECHNOLOGY IN PRESERVICE EDUCATION The past three decades have brought an increased use of technology in many sectors of society. However, the integration of technology into the teaching methods and practices of elementary school teachers has not been fully implemented. Technology equipment and software have arrived in school districts across the nation through sources such as federal funding received through government sponsored grants and through partnerships with major corporations. The influx of technology into the schools has also created a challenge for many higher-education teacher preparation programs. By the year 2008, it has been projected that the K-12 schools will hire approximately two million new teachers (Gerald & Williams, 1998). This increase in the number of new teachers places a burden on colleges and universities to address the technological needs of these new preservice teachers. Colleges of Education must be proactive in implementing teacher education programs that integrate technology through the entire teacher education program by providing opportunities for preservice teachers to observe the modeling of effective uses of technology by faculty and to use this technology and software in a supportive environment (Hill & Somers, 1996). Yet, the Office of Technology Assessment (OTA, 1995) noted that most teachers who graduate from teacher education programs do so with an inadequate knowledge of how they can implement technology into their teaching practices. Although most teacher education graduates reported that they were prepared to use basic programs such as drill and practice, tutorials, or writing software, only 1 in 10 believed that they could use more advanced programs such as electronic presentations or problem-solving software. These teachers also reported that they developed lesson plans or teaching materials for technology use in the classroom on a very limited basis. The report issued by OTA revealed that, "Overall teacher education programs in the United States do not prepare graduates to use technology as a teaching tool" (p. 184). A study completed by the National Center for Education Statistics (1999) also found that educators reported technology was important to the educational system's reform. However, only 20% of the teachers believed they were prepared to integrate technology into classroom instructional practices. Trotter (1999) reported on another study conducted by the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) which surveyed 416 colleges of education and found that the future graduates of these programs were not receiving the experiences they needed to effectively integrate technology. …

Student-Centered, Technology-Rich Learning Environments (SCenTRLE): Operationalizing Constructivist Approaches to Teaching and Learning

Abstract: This article presents a model for designing student-centered, technology-rich learning environments (SCenTRLE). The model helps educators operationalize constructivist and student-centered approaches to teaching and learning by delimiting eight instructional events for facilitating knowledge construction and the development of life-long learners. The article describes theoretical and conceptual foundations for the model, details the model and discusses enduring issues, including the use of technology, student attitudes, levels of implementation, holistic versus analytic performance assessment, and the application of constructivist principles within the context of traditional instructional systems design (ISD) models. ********** Student-centered approaches to teaching and learning stress the importance of students' past experiences, exploring individual needs and interests, promoting active participation, stimulating higher-order thinking, and encouraging life-long learning (e.g., Bonk & Cunningham, 1998; APA, 1993; CTGV, 1992; Holmes Group; 1990; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Similarly, constructivists advocate the development of environments that embed learning in authentic contexts, present learners with multiple perspectives, encourage self awareness and responsibility for learning and use modern technologies to facilitate telecommunications and the social construction of knowledge (Wilson, 1996; Duffy, Lowyck, & Jonassen, 1993; Cunningham, Duffy, & Knuth, 1993; Knuth & Cunningham, 1993). Many accede with such pedagogical methods. The challenge lies in operationalizing studentcentered, constructivist instructional strategies with a class of 30 plus students in an educational system that is more inclined to resist rather than e mbrace change. The lack of time, training, and incentives, coupled with large class sizes and incongruence with teacher beliefs, student expectations, and administrative directives appear to be some of the more pervasive reasons why classroom instruction remains predominately teacher-directed. For educators with little time, scant resources and limited exposure to student-centered methods, heuristics may not be sufficient for re-engineering their classrooms. Table 1 compares a set of heuristic design principles and an algorithm for designing and sequencing key instructional events. Heuristics define basic principles or guidelines for solving problems (in this case, designing student-centered learning environments). Algorithms delineate a sequence of instructional events (or a step-by-step process) for facilitating learning. For instance, educators attempting to create a constructivist learning environment as posited by Honebein's (1996) must determine when instruction is to provide experiences, present multiple perspectives, embed learning within authentic context, and so forth. In contrast, educators applying Gagne's (1977, 1974) nine events of instruction must still operationalize each event, but the basic sequencing is already defined. Heuristics leave considerable room for interpretation, promoting creativity, and the development of alternative environments but they still require educators to formulate an instructional strategy for addressing each principle. A number of algorithms have been posited for applying behaviorist and cognitive information processing theories of learning (Hirumi, 2002), but there is a dearth of algorithms for creating student-centered and constructivist learning environments. The major of published guidelines for creating student-centered, constructivist learning environments are heuristic in nature. Algorithms are now needed to help educators apply constructivist design principles and to generate, text, and refine strategies that will help transform traditional, teacher-directed methods into more student-centered approaches to teaching and learning. …

Technology-Enhanced Project-Based Learning in Teacher Education: Addressing the Goals of Transfer

Abstract: Teacher educators have a twofold concern regarding transfer because of the dual goals inherent in teacher education Certainly a primary goal is to have teacher candidates transfer what they learn in teacher preparation courses to their future classrooms and professional lives, but an equally important secondary goal is to enable candidates to facilitate their students' transfer of what they learn in K-12 classrooms to their future lives The purpose of this article is to describe a project, funded by the Preparing Tomorrow's Teachers to use Technology (PT3) initiative, that addresses these two goals through the use of technology-enhanced project-based learning in teacher education methods courses The first section of the article provides a rationale for the selection of project-based learning as a particularly appropriate instructional methodology to address transfer, and the second section describes the project and how technology has been infused to enhance project-based experiences THE PROBLEM OF TRANSFER The really important dependent variables in education are not located in classrooms Nor are they located in schools The really important variables are located outside schoolsIt's what students do with what they learn when they can do what they want to do that is the real measure of educational achievement (Eisner, 2001, p 370) Certainly the assumption underlying our educational system is that the knowledge gained in school will be available in the future and will be applied to the solution of new problems as they arise both in school and in real life situations Yet as early as 1929 Whitehead brought to our attention the existence of "inert" knowledge, or knowledge that can be recalled when specifically prompted but is not used spontaneously, even when relevant in a problem-solving situation Furthermore, Whitehead (1929) claimed that in schools, information is particularly likely to be presented in ways that make it inert Since then an increasing body of research has shown that the way knowledge is presented to students in school and the kinds of operations they are asked to perform with it often result in students "knowing" something but failing to use it when relevant (Lebow & Wager, 1994) A Closer Look Early educators believed that the mind could be trained with mental exercise much like the body could be trained with physical exercise Subjects like Latin and geometry were taught more for the logical thinking they engendered than for their practical application, the assumption being that if the mind were properly trained, knowledge and skills would automatically be applied when needed The notion of transfer of training through mental discipline was widely accepted in our culture until early in the 20th century At that time two educational psychologists, Edward Thorndike and Charles Judd, challenged this assumption but themselves carried on a running debate regarding the nature of transfer Thorudike (1913) proposed an "identical elements" theory, while Judd (1939) held that generalizations, not identical elements, were transferred to new learning situations Cognitive psychologists today generally side with Judd, but they point out that he did not adequately state the necessary conditions of transfer Nonetheless, it was Thorndike's theory that predominated at the time, and that theory initiated considerable research to determine what elements are essential in transfer situations and under what conditions transfer is most likely to occur Early work identified the essential elements as specific facts and skills that bore a strong resemblance across situations, and the essential condition was practice, lots of practice These ideas can still be found in current learning theories, and if the only concern were transference of basic skills, the problem of transfer would not be so troublesome …

Technology for Teaching and Learning: Strategies for Staff Development and Follow-Up Support

Abstract: This article discusses the staff development strategies included in the technology plans of 27 school districts. There was evidence that districts were moving toward long-term development strategies as opposed to a series of "one-shot" activities. Many plans called for strategies for follow-up support and addressed various levels of teachers' concerns about the implementation of technology. Some evaluation efforts included measures of teacher and student performance. The article concludes with recommendations for strengthening technology staff development initiatives to increase the likelihood that they will result in improved teaching and learning ********** Policy makers and administrators do not always support staff development for teachers. The typical rationale is easy to understand. Teachers describe negative staff development experiences in great detail. "Presenters were not familiar with the needs and interests of the teachers in the audience." "Participants were expected to sit still and listen to information that was irrelevant to their students." "The presenters demonstrated some interesting software, but there were no opportunities to try it ourselves!" It is not surprising that when workshops are over, many ideas that were presented go unused in classrooms. Fullan and Stiegelbauer (1991) observed that "nothing has promised so much and has been so frustratingly wasteful as the thousands of workshops and conferences that led to no significant change in practice when the teachers returned to their classrooms" (p. 315). Unfortunately, their observation continues to strike a familiar chord. On the other hand, staff development can be helpful. When groups of teachers are planning to implement new programs, staff development is often the first strategy they suggest. This is particularly true in the area of technology, and it reflects a continuing faith that staff development is an effective strategy for implementing change in education. There is broad recognition that teachers must have new knowledge and develop new skills and attitudes before they can teach others about technology or integrate technology into their classroom instruction in meaningful ways. In fact, many technology grant initiatives require a staff development plan as a condition for funding and then support the staff development strategies if the proposal is funded. However, the link between staff development and implementation is not automatic. Workshops and conferences, by themselves, do little to ensure that technology will be used in our schools and classrooms in ways that improve student learning. Technology staff development is big business, and a continuing emphasis on technology in education provides a unique opportunity to shift the culture of staff development away from "one-shot dog and pony shows" to delivery models that promise more lasting effects. To accomplish that shift, staff development strategies must extend over time, respond to the needs and concerns of teachers, and impact student learning. In 1995, the North Carolina General Assembly designated specific funds for educational technology. The funds were distributed to local school districts through a grants program administered by the NC Department of Public Instruction. Local district technology plans were required to specify needs, goals, and strategies in the areas of hardware, software, technical support, and staff development. This article presents the results of a review of the local technology plans of the 27 school districts in the northeastern part of the state. The purpose of the review was to identify the staff development strategies that were included in those plans and to highlight examples of strategies supported by research as most likely to result in improved teaching and learning. The results can be used to strengthen planning for technology initiatives. Research on staff development is reviewed first. …

Learning to Teach with Technology: Strategies for Inservice Professional Development

Abstract: This article describes and reports evaluation results for five key elements of the Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project's inservice professional development program. The five elements are: (a) Technology Learning Coordinators (a mentoring system), (b) Minigrants (small local grants tied to a planning process for teachers), (c) Partnerships (partnering of teachers experienced with multimedia projects with novices), (d) Student Interviews (a project-wide organization for evaluating student projects), and (e) Multimedia Fairs (annual exhibitions of student multimedia projects). Each element could be used alone, but evidence suggests synergistic effects emerged when all five were used together. The program as a whole was successful in developing and disseminating effective strategies for technology use, and in finding a level of systemic support for teaching with technology that made strategic use of limited resources. ********** What types of support help teachers become proficient with technology and use it as an effective tool? This question once seemed overwhelming, but over the past decade research has provided insight into the content and methods for professional development strategies most likely to be successful. This article reports the results of the teacher professional development strategies used in the Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project. These strategies were built on prior research and are highly adaptable to schools and districts that aim to support and expand the integration of technology into their instructional programs. THE CHALLENGE 2000 MULTIMEDIA PROJECT In 1995, the Silicon Valley Challenge 2000 Multimedia Project--or the Multimedia Project, for short--was launched as one of the original 19 Technology Innovation Challenge Grants funded by the U.S. Department of Education. The purpose of these grants was to demonstrate, document, and disseminate cutting-edge ways technology could be used to improve education. The success of the Multimedia Project earned it recognition in September 2000 as one of only two educational technology programs nationwide to be cited as "exemplary" by the Department's Expert Panel on Educational Technology. Because the Multimedia Project sought to develop and infuse schools with exemplary educational uses for technology, it was primarily a teacher professional development project. This article describes important lessons and insights developed over the six years of the Multimedia Project. These insights describe how limited resources can be leveraged and used strategically to provide technical and pedagogical support for inservice tea chers who want to use technology as part of an effective instructional strategy. At the core of the Multimedia Project was its instructional model, called Project-Based Learning Supported by Multimedia, or PBL+MM. PBL+MM is a method of teaching in which students acquire new knowledge and skills in the course of designing, planning, and producing a multimedia product. It is based on progressive educators' ideas about project-based learning from the early 20th century (Dewey, 1997; Kirkpatrick, 1918), but the product students create is a multimedia presentation. The PBL+MM model encompasses seven dimensions that combine to create a successful multimedia project for students and teachers: core curriculum, real-world connection, extended time frame, student-decision making, collaboration, assessment, and multimedia. Multimedia Project participants included 150 classroom teachers who represent 50 schools in 11 school districts that span the 1,740 square-mile Silicon Valley region. For most of these teachers, multimedia was a new technology, and many had only passing experience with project-based learning. What they shared at the outset was an interest in learning more about technology and a desire to provide the best education possible for their students. …

Challenges of Electronic Portfolios: Student Perceptions and Experiences

Abstract: With the implementation of national standards addressing technology, teacher preparation programs are faced with the issues of preparing teachers to effectively use and to seamlessly integrate technology across content areas. A team teaching approach at one major southeastern university required its methods students to produce electronic portfolios. The teaching team consisted of secondary education language arts and social studies faculty, inservice teachers, instructional technology faculty, and graduate students from both disciplines. This effort of modeling technological best practices resulted from numerous team meetings, intensive planning, and consistent project evaluation. The preservice teachers were required to attend technology seminars as part of regular classroom and methods work. Students were evaluated on their electronic portfolios that consisted of web-sites, digitally edited teaching episodes, databases, concept maps, and more. Through pretest and posttest surveys, the students were assessed on their perceptions of an electronic portfolio's value and their ideas of how technology can enhance teaching and learning in future classrooms. This article presents a discussion of the results from these assessments, procedural details, and the challenges and successes experienced by the teaching team and the students. ********** With the development of National Educational Technology Standards for Students and Teachers (NETS) through the cooperation of the U.S. Department of Education, International Society of Technology in Education (ISTE), and other organizations, states are beginning to integrate technology standards for teachers and students within their courses of study. Institutions of higher learning are cooperating through consortia efforts with other colleges and K-12 faculty to increase the preservice technological experiences for students. Fulton (1998) noted that teachers must be technologically savvy if students are expected to graduate with adequate workplace skills. According to McKenzie (1999), only 20% of teachers report feeling very well prepared to integrate educational technology into classroom instruction, which seems to indicate that preservice education and extended staff training are needed. The development and use of electronic portfolios by preservice teachers may be one method to introduce the students to s kills for teaching and learning in future classrooms. LITERATURE ON ELECTRONIC PORTFOLIOS Lankes (1998) defined electronic portfolios as a "purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the student's efforts, progress and achievements" (p. 18). Electronic portfolios differ from traditional portfolios in that information is collected, saved, and stored in an electronic format (Barrett, 1998). Electronic portfolios allow students to demonstrate problem-solving and critical thinking skills using authentic and performance based assessment (Campbell, Cignetti, Melenyzer, Nettles, & Wyman, 1997; Meyer, 1992). While more research is required to assess the effectiveness of electronic portfolios with preservice teachers, existing research suggests that there are benefits to be gained from use with preservice teachers (Herman & Morrell, 1999; Polonoli, 2000). Numerous advantages related to the use of electronic portfolios are suggested by the literature. Bull, Montgomery, and Kimball (2000) wrote that electronic portfolios promote learner self-evaluation even as they maximize the use of diverse learni ng strategies. Barrett (1997) agreed with this assertion adding that electronic portfolios allow students to demonstrate problem-solving skills even as they are compelled to take responsibility for their learning. Campbell et al. (1997), argued that out of this learner responsibility comes a degree of control over the learning process and over the process of becoming a professional educator. …

Situated Professional Development and Technology Integration: The Capital Area Technology and Inquiry in Education (CATIE) Mentoring Program

Abstract: This article explores the theoretical basis for a mentoring model of professional development concerned with the integration of computing technologies into classroom teaching and learning. It describes seven factors that affect professional development for technology integration and tells how the Capital Area Technology and Inquiry in Education (CATIE) Program's mentoring approach can be characterized according to each of these. Grounded in situative theories of knowledge and learning, the CATIE model places educational technology experts in schools and classrooms to work directly with teachers. Together mentors and teachers create and implement technology supported lessons that meet the teachers' instructional needs. The CATIE model aims to integrate technology into classroom activities at a grass roots level and situate teacher learning about technology in authentic classroom practice. ********** Recent large scale studies of computer usage in schools (Becker, 1994; Panel on Educational Technology, 1997; Educational Testing Service, 1998) have precipitated public debate concerning the efficacy of using computers to support instruction, and have highlighted the need for professional development in this area. While emphasizing the need for professional development and pointing to the relationship between it and more sophisticated uses of technology in schools, these and other studies suggested that our understanding of what sorts of professional development programs impact technology integration at school and classroom levels needs to be improved. What we do know is that the teacher training, "expert model" of professional development (Sparks, 1994) does not work, especially when it comes to learning about educational technologies and their integration across the curriculum. Indeed, teacher lore suggests that traditional inservice teacher education has little impact on teaching practices in general. Smylie (1989), for example, found that teachers ranked inservice training last out of 14 possible opportunities for learning. What teachers ranked as most important was direct classroom experience. Other researchers reported similar findings (Little, 1994). Even exemplary professional development programs find it difficult to maintain support for teachers (Carey & Frechtling, 1997), to encourage sustained discourse among participating teachers (Schlager & Schank, 1997), to "scale up" through the inclusions of all teachers, and to develop, test, and disseminate new teaching and learning ideas (Corcoran, 1995). Researchers agree that new models of professional development are needed, and that such models must include a focus on the development of local cultures of interest if they are to be sustainable. SITUATED PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Several scholars in the field have developed lists of the features common to effective staff development activities (Little, 1988; Abdal-Haqq, 1995; Ball, 1996; Wilson & Beme, 1999). Putnam and Borko (1997), for example, reduce the essential features of effective teacher education to four: 1. Teachers should be treated as active learners who construct their own understanding. 2. Teachers should be empowered and treated as professionals. 3. Teacher education should be situated in classroom practice. 4. Teacher educators should treat teachers as they expect teachers to treat students. In a more recent article, Putnam and Borko (2000) related recent trends in research on professional development to new understandings of the nature of learning and knowing that collectively have been labeled "situative" (Greeno, 1997). They identified three conceptual themes central to situative perspectives--(a) that cognition is situated in particular physical and social contexts, (b) that it is social in nature, and (c) that knowing is distributed across the individual, others, and tools (p. …

Mentoring: A Strategy for Change in Teacher Technology Education

Abstract: * * * * * * * * * * A preservice mentoring program involving second year mentors and first year proteges focused on concerns regarding the use of the Internet for teaching and learning. The mentoring program was analyzed using the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM). This model describes three developmental phases of concerns regarding innovation and change: self-focus, task, and impact. The Stages of Concern Questionnaire (SoCQ) was used as both a pre and postassessment of participants concerns. The unique nature of mentoring allowed each group to address relevant concerns and make positive shifts to higher levels of concern. The validity of the SoCQ for preservice teachers is discussed and an alternative is investigated. Using technology to strengthen learning requires teachers who possess the skills and abilities to do so. Teachers need to become competent both with basic technology skills, and with using technology for teaching and learning. Acquiring this knowledge base is not a one-time event; it is an ongoing process of change. A 1999 national survey of teacher education programs has found little correlation between training in formal technology classes and the capacity for integration in actual teaching (Moursund & Bielefeldt, 1999). The current model used in higher education all too frequently reinforces this problem. Preservice teachers' primary experience with technology often occurs in a stand-alone course that focuses on computer skills. Effectively preparing preservice teachers to integrate technology requires a systematic program that recognizes the concerns preservice teachers have with the use of technology. This study examined a peer-mentoring program that was implemented as one method of integrating technology across the preservice teacher program. The program centered on using the Internet for teaching and learning. The mentors were second and third year students enrolled in an instructional technology course. The proteges were first year students enrolled in Introduction to Elementary Education, the first course in the elementary education sequence. Mentors learned Internet and technology integration skills by developing WebQuests for use by K-6 students as part of the instructional technology course. After creating these WebQuests, the mentors coached their proteges in the development of a web page focusing on Internet sources for teachers. The first year students did not receive any training on use of the Internet in the introductory course. The mentoring took place over a five-week time frame. The mentors were responsible for scheduling instruction and developing strategies to meet the individual needs of their proteges. Mentors evaluated their proteges both in terms of their basic technology skills and their attitudes and concerns regarding use of the Internet for teaching and learning. This study covered 45 mentors and 65 proteges in one semester. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Stages of Concern Feelings of concern and disequilibria are normal when preservice teachers learned new skills or an innovation. A theory of the change process was developed by Fuller (1969) who posited three developmental stages that preservice teachers go through: (a) nonconcern, (b) concern with self, and (c) concern with others. Fuller's model led to a more general theory of innovation and change called the Concerns-Based Adoption Model (CBAM). CBAM was based on several assumptions: (a) change was not an event, but a process; (b) change was best seen as happening within individuals rather than as within institutions; (c) individuals had different concerns as well as different skill levels at different stages of the change process; and (d) effective facilitation of change meant addressing the specific concerns of individuals who were at different stages of the change process (Berlin & Jensen, 1989). …

Pedagogical TICKIT: Web Conferencing to Promote Communication and Support During Teacher Professional Development

Abstract: This article discusses the online activities used in the Teacher Institute for Curriculum Knowledge about the Integration of Technology (TICKIT) during 1998-1999. TICKIT is a school-based professional development program involving 25-30, K-12 teachers from five or six rural Indiana schools each year. In this particular year, web-based asynchronous conferencing was used by 25 TICKIT teachers from five schools to post technology integration progress reports, "critical friend" feedback about these reports, reactions to debate topics, and reading reactions. The article choices, debates, and critical friend pairs were predetermined. Online debates fostered more words per post than both critical friend and reading reactions. The discussions were analyzed for their focus (content, ontask, offtask) as well as references to peers, one's classroom, and the TICKIT program. Posts were also analyzed for the degree of depth and degree of support for one's claims. Online instructor mentoring or type of learning assistance was also evaluated. Critical friend posts were more social and included more peer referencing and support, while the online debates and reading reactions tended to focus participants around particular content. Critical friend tasks reminded participants of task requirements and related technology integration to teaching experiences. TICKIT teachers were more favorable to the critical friend activities than online debates and reading reactions. PROBLEM STATEMENT Schools continue to invest heavily in technology for classrooms. It is assumed that access to technology can improve teaching and learning. Despite sharply increased availability of computers, software, local networking, and Internet access, however, many teachers report little or no use of this growing potential. As the Teachers & Technology report pointed out, "Helping teachers use technology effectively may be the most important step to assuring that current and future investments in technology are realized" (U.S. Congress, 1995, p. 2). Another government report pointed out that teachers need much skill to use technology in their teaching, but "...most teachers are left largely on their own as they struggle to integrate technology into their curricula" (President's Committee of Advisors on Science and Technology: Panel on Educational Technology, 1997, p. 47). Clearly there is a need for professional development related to teacher technology integration. According to Stein, Smith, and Silver (1999), the professional development of teachers must begin to focus on long-term development of teachers as individuals as well as the development of self-sustaining learning communities within schools. General issues that must be addressed by such training and development include: (a) teachers' lack of knowledge and skill; (b) isolation from networks of technology-using teachers; (c) lack of models of curriculum integration; (d) limited time; and (e) lack of structured expectations and corresponding support mechanisms. When faced with decisions about whether or not and how to use technology in their teaching, teachers should have access to well-grounded educational ideas and practices, the means to discuss these with others, and models to follow in translating them into classroom reality. In response, the Teacher Institute for Curriculum Knowledge about the Integration of Technology (TICKIT) was developed at Indiana University as a yearlong, school-based professional development program. TICKIT annually involves 25-30 teachers from five or six rural K-12 schools in southern Indiana. TICKIT teachers develop and teach curriculum units involving the use of technology during each of two semesters with support from university personnel and peers. To address these issues and needs TICKIT creates teams of university and public school personnel to merge resources and interests. As a result, teachers use technology to build more authentic and instructionally engaging learning environments (Bonk, Hay, & Fischer, 1996). …

No One Way: Working Models for Teachers’ Professional Development

Abstract: This study investigates the role of professional development in the implementation of computer technologies in schools across Canada and elsewhere. Three examples of professional development in Canada are examined, each functioning at a different administrative level (faculty of education, school-district and school-based), and each employing a different strategy or set of tactics for professional development. The programs are described in general terms, elucidating the methods and practices which support and hinder teachers in their technological development. Teachers' and administrators' own stated preferences for "what works" and "what doesn't work" are examined as they attempt to make more and/or better use of computers in their classes and schools. The data collection methods that were used in this study were documentary research, onsite visits, workshop observations, and semi-structured interviews with teachers, project developers and administrators. A common range of issues encountered when teachers pa rticipate in large- and small-scale professional development programs was identified, and certain key elements that should be considered when designing and implementing professional development programs for teachers are suggested. ********** This study examines an often over-looked aspect of the implementation of computer technologies in schools across Canada and elsewhere: it seeks to identify, describe, and clarify examples of teacher professional development from the standpoint of its participants--namely, teachers and their administrators. As the number of computers accessible to students and teachers in classrooms and labs has increased, especially in the last 10 years, there has been a corresponding emphasis on "integrating technology across the curriculum." Teachers' effective use of computers in their classrooms, however, remains an elusive goal. Researchers have identified numerous barriers to teachers' use of computers in their classes, such as limited equipment, inadequate skills, minimal support, time constraints, and the teachers' own lack of interest or knowledge about computers (Bryson & de Castell, 1998; Berg, Benz, Lasley, & Raisch, 1998; Clark, 2000; Ertmer, Addison, Lane, Ross, & Woods, 1998; Hadley & Sheingold, 1993; Laferriere, Breuleux, Baker, & Fitzsimons, 1999; Macmillan, Liu & Timmons, 1997; National Center for Educational Statistics [NCES], 1999; Schrum, 1994, 1997, 1999). Rightly or wrongly, teachers have come "under fire" as insufficiently skilled to make use of promising new technologies. In the early stage of computer adoption in the classroom we have too often faced the spectacle of enormous resources being dedicated to hardware and software while neglecting the human part of the equation--teacher support and development. Governments, faculties of education, school districts, schools, communities, and individuals have belatedly come to understand the need to give teachers access to training and development in required information technology skills. In British Columbia, for example, in 2001, the Ministry of Education earmarked $1.6 million for professional development in the integration of technology, into classroom instruction for 1,000 teachers of Grades 6-9. While programs for providing professional development have varied widely and have been examined in detail in a number of US based studies (see, more recently, Hoffman & Thompson, 2000; NCES, 1999; Sorg & Russell, 2000; Schrum, 1999; Swain, 2000; Walbert, 2000) and a Canada-wide study (Laferriere, Breuleux, Baker & Fitzsimons, 1999) this work focuses on three examples of professional development in Canada, each functioning at a different administrative level (faculty of education, school-district, and school-based), and each employing a different strategy or set of tactic s for professional development. …

Narratives of Collaboration: Inquiring into Technology Integration in Teacher Education

Abstract: A group of teacher educators researched their implementation of technology while trying to remain consonant with their philosophical frameworks. Four themes cut across the collected narratives. Commitment toward change describes the background attitudes and beliefs that propelled them to explore changes to their practice. Obstacles to using technology involved challenges in the teaching and learning environments. Struggles in using technology within instructional contexts highlights shared pedagogical concerns. Finally, attitudes toward technology use, outlines shifting understandings and their effect on their attitudes as teacher educators. Three conclusions emerged from the study. A match between the use of technology and the goals of instruction was necessary. Technology tended to make tasks more complicated, limiting the ability to incorporate technology into teaching. Perhaps more important than the exploration of technology as an instructional tool, however, was the insight gained into their own philosophies of teaching and learning through participation in the narrative of collaboration, and the ability to submit self-narratives for discussion by groups of colleagues. ********** Recent reports from a host of task forces, national commissions, and accrediting bodies have focused on teacher preparation for the 21st century. Each report offers numerous recommendations which, when combined, require the virtual redesign of existing teacher education programs. Although these reports provide rationales and serve as directives for aligning programs in teacher education with the changing times, they offer little advice to the people responsible for implementing these changes: teacher educators. This article addresses the need for professional development of teacher educators to answer the growing call for redesigned teacher preparation. In the fall of 1997, four teacher educators at a small liberal arts college came together to examine our own needs for professional development. Although they came from diverse disciplines and experiential backgrounds, they shared three common epistemological standpoints: (a) a constructivist philosophy of teaching and learning; (b) a belief in the benefits of collaboration; and (c) a commitment to qualitative, interpretivist inquiry. These shared standpoints made them unique at the college and within their department (and often placed them on the margins). Their group formed and met weekly to support one another in their teaching and research as they faced the challenge of implementing departmental policy within their own philosophical frameworks. This challenge was intensified when they were given the mandate to incorporate multimedia into classes and coursework. Although the group initially formed to support individual teaching questions and research interests, it quickly took on a technology focus. This occurred for several reasons. First, with all of the demands placed on the time of faculty members at a small institution, they simply could not envision a way to increase technological proficiency and address individual professional development goals. Second, they believed that because they were all being asked to implement multimedia into their courses, although diverse, they could share ideas with and learn from the experiences of one another. Third, one of the group members was an educational technologist who left after the first year of the study. For her, inquiry into technology was self-chosen as well as required. For the rest of them, they decided to inquire into a problem chosen for them (integration of technology into teacher education cour ses) through means that they chose themselves: collaborative self-study. However, while combining the study of a program-imposed problem with self-determined methods seemed a reasonable compromise, the tension between their own desired directions for professional development and those mandated to them remained in the foreground of the inquiry. …

Online Collaboration: Supporting Novice Teachers as Researchers.

Abstract: This article presents a descriptive study that examined the influence of using electronic mail (e-mail) to support novice teachers as they attempted to sustain action research projects in their classrooms. The participants included nine graduates of the Southwest Texas State University (SWT) Teacher Fellows Program and an assistant professor in the program. As part of the Teacher Fellows (a graduate-level mentoring/induction program), first-year teachers conduct action research in their respective classrooms. This study sought to determine how an online collaboration by way of e-mail could help these novice teachers continue their research efforts in the second and third years of teaching. Data was collected from e-mail messages, postsurveys, and follow-up interviews. An analysis of the data suggests that electronic collaborations are an effective method of supporting novice teachers in their research efforts. Findings include the benefits and challenges of collaborating online. ********** The increased use of computer-mediated communication and collaboration is helping teacher educators overcome barriers such as time and place in their efforts to mentor and support novice teachers. This article presents a descriptive study that examined the influence of using e-mail to support novice teachers as they attempted to sustain action research projects in their classrooms. It includes (a) a brief review of literature related to the emerging field of electronic collaboration, (b) a description of the pilot project, (c) an analysis and findings of the data, and (d) conclusions drawn from the study. OVERVIEW OF ELECTRONIC COLLABORATION According to Koschmann (1996), a new area of research in instructional technology known as computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL) is emerging in the field of education. Also referred to as "electronic collaboration," this new focus of research is grounded in the theoretical frameworks of socialconstructivism (Duffy & Cunningham, 1996; Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1996; Vygotsky, 1978). As Bonk and Cunningham (1998) pointed out "...a few educators have come to recognize the importance of social constructivism for electronic learning because the potential for collaboration and negotiation embedded within it provides the learner with the opportunity to obtain alternative perspectives on issues and offer personal insights; in effect to engage in meaning making and knowledge negotiation" (p. 34). In Electronic Collaborators: Learner-Centered Technologies for Literacy, Apprenticeship, and Discourse, Bonk and King (1998) highlighted the constructivist uses of technology tools. They pointed out, for example, that electronic collaboration "emphasizes active, generative learning, with curricula wherein teachers continue to perform a critical learning function as learning consultants and guides" (p. 35). In addition, they summarized and defined key sociocultural terms and principles (e.g., mediation, zones of proximal development, internalization, cognitive apprenticeship, assisted learning, teleapprenticeships, and scaffolded learning) that provide theoretical frameworks for CSCL environments. Supporting cycles of collaboration, enactment, and reflection is time-consuming, labor intensive, and expensive. To promote change, we must find ways to make the process more efficient and unload some of the effort. Harnessing t he potential of the new technologies is one route to supporting change in education if done in a manner that is guided by current ideas about teacher learning. (p. 275) In recent years numerous educators have demonstrated the effectiveness of incorporating technology into teacher education courses as well as inservice professional development (Bonk & King, 1998; Falba, Studler, Bean, Dixon, Markos, McKinney, & Zehm, 1999; McMullen, Goldbaum, Wolffe, & Sattler, 1998; Murphy, Drabier, & Epps, 1998; Soloway, Krajcik, Blumenfeld, & Marx, 1996; Wetzel, 1993). …

Computer Coordinators as Change Agents: Some New Zealand Observations.

Abstract: Strong and effective leadership at the school level is needed if information and communication technology (ICT) is to be successfully planned and integrated into the school curriculum. A study was conducted in 2000 to investigate factors affecting the use of technology in 25 secondary schools in one region of New Zealand. As part of the study, the leadership role of the ICT coordinators in the planning and implementation process has been examined. This article discusses some of the observations on the leadership role of the ICT coordinators gathered from that study. In this article the authors argue that ICT coordinators could serve as agents of change as they are the ones who could provide professional development for their colleagues. They could also be the driver of technology development. However, ICT coordinators currently face heavy workloads and lack the time necessary to successfully envision themselves and their schools. They could play a more effective role if their role is fully recognized and more resources are given to them. ********** In the last few years there has been a great increase in the availability of computer hardware and software and in the Internet access available in schools in New Zealand and overseas (Market Data Retrieval, 1999; Information Technology Advisory Group, 2000). With more computers being available to teachers and an increase in Internet connectivity in schools, we would expect a greater use of ICT in teaching. However, as Cuban (1999) observed, classroom use of ICT has continued to be "uneven, slow, and of decidedly mixed variety." One popular explanation for the lack of the use of ICT in schools is the lack of systematic planning and implementation. While this is a plausible explanation, Cuban (1999) suggested that cultural and social beliefs, as well as school and organizational structures would also impact on whether or not teachers are willing to innovate with computing technologies. To help change the beliefs and values of teachers in technology use, a strong and effective leadership at the school level (as contrasted to the national level) is needed (Lai, 1999). When we talk about school leadership we sometimes only focus on the role of the principal as the one who could envision their staff. For example, in New Zealand, workshops such as Principals-Only Days were routinely organized for principals for such purposes. In the school setting, there are other leaders, who may not have the same level of power or authority as the principal, but nonetheless could be as influential and envisioning as the principal. The ICT coordinators, f or example, could serve as school reform or change agents (Marcovitz, 2000). A study was conducted in 2000 to investigate factors affecting the use of technology in 25 secondary schools in one region of New Zealand. As part of the study, the role of the ICT coordinators in the planning and implementation process has been examined. This article discusses some of the observations on the leadership role of the ICT coordinators gathered from that study. THE STUDY In 2000 a study was undertaken to evaluate the effectiveness of technology use of 25 secondary schools in southern New Zealand who had received some two million dollars of funding from a local community Trust to purchase computer hardware and peripherals, networking items, and cabling for their schools (known as the Technology Project). These 25 schools were located within an urban population area of about 115,000, as well as in several small provincial towns and also included a number of small rural schools. The region is a relatively low population area and some of the schools in the study were located at distances of up to three hours drive from the main urban centre. The schools in the study ranged in size from 115 to over 800 students, and were both coeducational and single sex. …

Script Creation for the Design of Lesson Plans.

Abstract: The audio-visual approach used in pedagogy, closely associated with a lock-step view of teaching in the seventies, has undergone a revolution in recent years. By way of examining how teachers can script a body of pedagogic sequences, or lessons, the different phases of the lesson planning process and how a more innovative audio-visual approach can facilitate this process are examined. First, different learning styles as perceived by learners themselves are outlined. Second, an overview of the different pedagogic approaches available to teachers is proposed. Third, the different phases of creating a lesson script are described based on a scenistic approach. Finally, two types of lesson scripts are outlined to demonstrate how one can take into account apparently contradictory teaching methods. ********** One of the challenges of teaching is to ensure the learning content is not only meaningful to learners, but also has the desired educational impact on the quality of their learning. All too often, however, carefully crafted teaching/learning materials tend to be presented in such a way that they have limited impact on learners. One explanation for this, is that many teachers feel unable to convert their expert knowledge to the needs of different learners because they do not have the appropriate preparation in integrating teaching tools into their lesson plans. This article describes a method to guide the designing of learning environments, based on the work of an interdisciplinary team of researchers and teachers at the Universite de Valenciennes (France). The first part of the article discusses research conducted at the University based on a variation of Mumford and Honey's (1992) Learning Styles Questionnaire to establish the perceived learning styles of 179 adult learners (Study 1). This is followed by giving the results of a study into learners' self-observation of their dominant learning style (Style 2). The second part of the article outlines the historical legacy of different pedagogic models through six educational paradigms, cross-referenced to nine operational aspects of teaching. To put this analysis in perspective, a study was conducted into the expressed learning modes of 575 adults learning English as a Foreign Language (EFL) (Study 3).This was followed by a comparison of two dominant educational schools of thought, drawn from the work of Piaget (1975 ) and Vygotsky (1934/1962). The third part of the article explains step by step how to draw up a scripted lesson through a series of interconnected pedagogic fragments. To do this key concepts such as: lesson, document, hyperdocument, lesson script, diagese, script, scenation, scenic, and setting up the situation are defined. This process is called the scenistic approach to lesson planning. Finally, the article proposes different personalized learning tracks based on two broad types of lesson scripts with their respective advantages and disadvantages in the classroom. FOUR BASIC LEARNING STYLES There is consensus about the idea that a lesson based essentially on the apparent convenience or fascination for teaching tools is doomed to failure. From an educational point of view, teaching tools are not neutral, if nothing else they depend on the teacher's perceptions of learning styles and what s/he expects of learners in terms of the tools' capabilities. In this light, Mumford and Honey's (1992) questionnaire of styles (Reflector, Theorizer, Pragmatic, and Activist, see Table 1) can help understand what may be going on in the learning process. The advantage of using Mumford and Honey's (1992) questionnaire is its widespread use and cross-curricula application. In practical terms, a dominant learning style represents the likely starting point of how an individual marshals his/her resources. If this initial approach should fail, the learner might then turn to other learning modes. …

Technorealism: The Rhetoric and Reality of Technology in Teacher Education

Abstract: Technology integration in teacher education is occurring at an unprecedented pace. Technorealism is desperately needed in teacher education programs to help ameliorate the mad rush to computer technology integration for its own sake. Technorealism offers a balanced and "rational" approach to the latest technologies and the resulting changes in thoughts as well as actions. The technorealism approach in teacher education suggests the integration of technology that can facilitate "powerful" approaches to teaching and learning including meaningful, creative, challenging, inquiry-based, and active applications. The article suggests the integration of seven principles of technorealism in teacher education. ********** Technology is just a tool. In terms of getting the kids working together and motivating them, the teacher is the most important -- Bill Gates Technological innovations and changes are occurring at a dizzying rate today and people are either embracing these changes and cheerleading the rapidly advancing technologies, or are in a near state of panic predicting some high-tech doom. Historically, almost any time great upheavals occur, there is a good deal of anxiety produced in the society as traditional roles and values are in flux. Much of our contemporary societal angst can be linked to the rapidly changing technologies, particularly regarding computer technology. Nothing inspires as much hope (information superhighway and the interconnectedness of the global village) and as much fear (Y2K and technoterrorism) as computer technology. The rhetoric of hope belongs to technophiles, while technophobes own that of fear. Technophiles generally have an uncritical view of technology. They suggest that technology can be the answer to current (and future) questions, and often advocate a head-long, eyes-closed, plunge into all high-tech endeavors. Technophobes on the other hand, have an overly-critical view of technology. They often believe that technology is inherently dangerous and that we should avoid plugging-in all the important institutions in our society. Such dyadic thinking is not productive, in fact, such extremism in either direction is generally counter-productive. Contemporary technological advances must be viewed and analyzed beyond this simplistic either/or dichotomy. The issues surrounding the uses of technology are far more complex. Just as we now understand that a glass of water can exist at any one time as both half-empty and half-full, technology simultaneously exists as an agent of both hope and of fear. Therefore, it is necessary to construct a more practical and central theory that reconciles the bivalent nature of technology, rather than apply the two theories that reflect a dichotomous approach. The bivalence theory regarding technology is technorealism. Technorealism offers a more balanced and "rational" approach to the latest technologies and the resulting changes in thoughts as well as actions. This middle-of-the-road approach is needed to avoid the extremities of technophilia and technophobia. It is this middle-ground that technorealism seeks to define, employ, and expand. SEEKING THE MIDDLE GROUND IN TEACHER EDUCATION It is probably bordering on sedition to use the word middle in connection with contemporary teacher education programs. With teachers, pedagogy, and schooling under relentless scrutiny from a variety of sources (parents, political officials, and others), superlatives like higher, bigger, better, and faster seem much more desirable expressions among teacher educators. However, this is problematic because it privileges an extreme. It indicates that the only possible alternative has to be diametrically opposite, and this is not always the case. Again, the bivalent nature of all issues makes it necessary to explore a middle-ground. In teacher education programs all over the United States, a line in the sand is being drawn by the philes and phobes over technology. …

Teaching Action Research via Distance.

Abstract: The author examined important factors and student outcomes in action research courses taught via distance in a Master of Education in Curriculum and Instruction program. Over the three years of the study, communication used in the program evolved from primarily mail and phone correspondence to primarily e-mail and online discussion groups. Following a systematic analysis of faculty meeting notes, syllabi, letters, statements of professional growth from student portfolios, comments on student and alumni surveys, and archived online discussions, the author identified technical and human aspects that appeared to have fostered the courses' success. Technical aspects included preproposal coaching; consistency between text, syllabus, and online materials; use of progress reports for monitoring and feedback; working with groups doing collaborative projects; choosing an appropriate mode of communication for feedback; electronic editing options; and effective uses of the online discussion group. Human aspects included providing constructive criticism, adapting the research timetable, and fostering supportive working relationships. Findings suggest that, as a result of the research experience, many students were more inclined to use inquiry and reflection in their approach to teaching and had taken new leadership roles in the school setting. Recommendations for teaching action research via distance are provided. ********** Action research has taken its place in the educational setting as a valuable process for teacher development and institutional change. Through action research, teachers have developed confidence in their ability to improve their own teaching (Ernst, cited in Zeichner & Klehr, 1999; Webb, 1990), developed a more questioning and reflective stance toward their practice (Kember, 1998; Webb, 1990), become more proactive in effecting change within their classrooms (Goswami & Stillman, 1987; Webb, 1990), and gone beyond the classroom to effect institutional change (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993; Zeichner, 1993). Action research by teachers is also expected to help shape the research agenda for education and the way educational issues are framed (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1993; Zeichner, 1993). Studies of teachers' action research experiences suggest that control over and ownership of the research questions is essential for significant action research to take place (Jaworski, 1998; Squire & Barkins, 1999). Those facilitating the research need to have the utmost respect for teachers and what they bring to the research project (Caro-Bruce & Zeichner, 1998). They need to help teacher researchers understand that flexibility is an important component of action research, that design can change as the project unfolds (Kember, 1998). The opportunity to work with colleagues in a critical yet supportive environment is also essential (Kember, 1998; Squire & Barkins, 1999). Finally, presenting one's research to an audience (Kosnick, 2000) and receiving feedback from diverse perspectives (Ernst, cited in Zeichner & Klehr, 1999) support the successful action research experience. Action research is typically conducted in face-to-face contexts and is frequently part of a graduate program. Yet, increasingly, teachers are enrolling in distance education programs as a means for professional development. Distance education offers teachers convenience and flexibility, but can action research, which is such a collaborative process, be taught via distance? The literature indicates that some aspects of distance education may interface well with action research. Distance learning lends itself to self-directed learning and learner control over educational decisions (Meyer, 2001), factors that have been cited as important to successful action research projects. Problem-based learning, which also requires learner self direction, has been successfully taught via distance (Taplin, 2000). …

A Working Typology of Intentions Driving Face-To-Face and Online Interaction in a Graduate Teacher Education Course

Abstract: The study examined the intentions driving face-to-face and online interaction in a graduate online course from the meaning perspectives of the teacher and students. Participants in the study were eight students and the teacher of a graduate teacher education course at a southwestern university. The theoretical framework of the study was based on symbolic interactionism and the methodological approach was based on the canons of interpretive research as Erickson (1986) laid them out. Data analysis identified several intentions driving interaction. These included discussing and exchanging ideas, negotiating aspects of the course, providing feedback, gaining access and status in a setting, and socializing. The discussion and data excerpts clearly illustrate that underneath the surface of what, appear as ordinary day-to-day interaction, there are multiple meanings that are constructed and assigned when participants engage in joint action. Those meanings and intentions are what drive interaction.

Exploring the Influence of a Physical Education Listserv on K-12 Physical Educators

Abstract: USPE-L (recently renamed NASPE-L) is an e-mail listserv that provides a forum for physical educators to discuss their teaching and programs--and offer collegial support that may not be immediately available in a local community. This study used two sources of data collection including an e-mail survey (N=113) and follow-up phone interviews (N=10) to explore the influence of participation on the USPE-L listserv on the self-described teaching practices of K-12 physical education teachers. Benefits and limiting factors of participating on the listserv were analyzed. Findings indicated that participation on the listserv was reported to be a valued resource leading subscribers to new teaching activities, curricular materials, and reduced feelings of isolation. Findings also indicated a need for listserv etiquette as teachers new to this electronic forum reported a reluctance to share ideas when their postings appeared to be harshly criticized or questioned. ********** Good teachers, regardless of the subject or grade level taught, search for fresh, innovative lesson and curricular ideas. The recent advent of electronic communications makes this continuing search for new information easier than ever before. A byproduct of searching for innovative lessons and projects is that teachers report better connections with other teachers as they exchange ideas and apparently feel less isolated (Ruopp, Pfister, Drayton, & Gal, 1993; Tannehill, Berkowitz, & LaMaster, 1995). Research on the use of telecommunications networks in education is a fairly recent topic of study. This study focused on an e-mail network (or listserv) for physical educators. Teachers seeking information to improve their teaching and programs often use traditional resources, for example, joining professional associations, attending professional conferences, subscribing to relevant journals, attending inservice trainings, and pursuing advanced degrees (Doolittle & Schwager, 1989; Housner, 1996; Stroot, 1996; Templin, 1989). These resources are referred to as professional development, defined as "the knowledge, skills, abilities, and necessary conditions for teacher learning on the job" (Lieberman & Miller, 1992, p. 1045). Physical educators face significant challenges when it comes to learning on the job, comparable to those faced by other subject area teachers. One of these challenges is a lack of time. They must often take a "personal day" to participate in professional development activities (Lambdin, 1986; Templin, 1989). All too often the system set up by administrators for teachers to receive funding for professional development activities is a time-consuming hassle that seems to discourage, rather than encourage, teachers from developing professionally (Templin, 1989). Teachers' workloads also limit the time they can spend in professional development (Lawson, 1989; O'Sullivan, 1989; Stroot, 1996; Stroot, Collier, O'Sullivan, & England, 1994; Stroot, Faucette, & Schwager, 1993; Templin, 1989). Secondary physical educators often teach all day and then coach in the afternoons and evenings. (Stroot, 1996; Stroot et al., 1993, 1994; Templin, 1989). This type of workload affects their job performance (Stroot et al., 1994) often leaving minimal time and energy for planning and professional development activities (Templin, 1989). Elementary physical educators often have additional nonteaching duties such as lunchroom, bus, or recess duty along with teaching six to nine classes a day-and some also have coaching responsibilities for part of the school year (Stroot, 1996). The rapidly growing popularity of the Internet may be an alternative source of professional development for many teachers. It is quick and available whenever the teacher has a few minutes to spend on professional development. In addition to increasing usage of web sites, e-mail listservs (electronic discussion groups) also appear to be popular with some teachers. …

Combining Web-Based Training and Mentorship to Improve Technology Integration in the K-12 Classroom

Abstract: To satisfy the demand for a technology literate workforce, students in the United States must receive computer instruction at an early age. Unfortunately, technology integration efforts are falling far short and state and federal agencies are beginning to hold schools accountable for infusing technology into curriculum. It is clear that schools are in need of programs that improve technology integration. Mentor supported web-based training for K-12 teachers can improve technology integration in the classroom. The program focuses on benefits derived from combining mentor-ship and online training. A procedural manual for implementing such a program was developed and tested through the course of a nine-month pilot study. Results indicated that a diverse population of teachers can benefit from such a program. ********** Although computers have improved classroom instruction in many ways (Parson, 1997; Powers & Laflore, 1998; Richards & Ridley, 1997), a variety of problems still exist with K-12 technology integration. For nearly a decade, attempts to apply traditional workshop-based training models to satisfy the needs of teachers have been largely unsuccessful for improving actual integration (Bradshaw, 1997; Hawley & Valli, 2000; Poole, 1998). Time and scheduling restrictions for training, limited funds, lack of teacher retention, and low teacher comfort with technology pose significant barriers to successful technology integration. Furthermore, stringent government regulations are beginning to require K-12 teachers to use technology in the classroom (State of Connecticut, Department of Education, 1999). A number of problems currently exist that impede technology integration in the classroom. According to teachers surveyed, the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2000) reported that time and scheduling restrictions seriously hinder computer use in the classroom. Kruse (1997) suggested that alternatives to workshop-based training such as online delivery of content could be more effective. A major issue with traditional, onetime workshops is low retention. Collins and Casbon (1999) illustrated quite clearly that training must be ongoing to foster growth. They presented statistics that suggested only 10% of material presented during a workshop is actually learned. An alarming statistic presented by the CEO Forum (Hendricks & Bryant, 2000) indicated only 33% of US teachers felt confident incorporating technology into their classroom. Although this is nearly a 13% improvement from the previous year, a staggering two-thirds of the nation's teachers remain uncomfortable with computers as an instruction al tool. Government legislation is beginning to require teachers to integrate computers within the classroom. The State of Connecticut, Department of Education (1999) mandated that K-8 teachers receive 15 hours of classroom related computer training every five years. Government efforts are focused on improving technology integration in schools. As a result of problems with current integration efforts, effective programs must be developed that improve computer use in the K-12 classroom. To examine the applicability of a program, which combines online training supported by mentors, a procedural manual was developed and a pilot study was conducted that focused on integrating technology into the classroom. BACKGROUND The technology training coordinator developed the program based on current literature. A Technology Committee, which included members of the technology department and the assistant superintendent, assisted by developing criteria that served to refine the program. Another group of stakeholders, the advisory board, was established to validate the criteria developed by the technology committee to ensure that the program met teachers' needs. The advisory board was comprised of principals, the director of curriculum and instruction, several mentors, and a parent. …

Expanding Classroom Discussion with an Online Medium

Abstract: This article outlines the use of the online SpeakEasy communication package in two sections of a mathematics methods course in an elementary education teacher certification program The instructional uses of SpeakEasy are described, with specific attention to the manner in which it was woven into the fabric of the course and made central to the instructional format Specific data were collected to determine the various effects of extending classroom discussion into the virtual realm in this context These included the promotion of reflection on the teaching of mathematics and increased "vocality" of students who provided little or no input in the actual classroom The students also possessed positive attitudes to the use of SpeakEasy in the course Recommendations for instruction and instructional design are provided THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK Basic to developmental theories of learning are the two notions of communication and reflection (Hiebert, 1992) These take on different forms and roles in an online setting Given that "what drives the use of technology is a vision of how educational technologies can solve instructional problems (US Congress, 1995)," it is important that "problems" be framed in the context of the use of electronic communication in the promotion of individual and group reflection Further, as Clarke (2000) stated, "to teach is to reflect" (p 201, emphasis in original) Electronic communication is not normally face-to-face and is often textual, and asynchronous communication evolves over irregular time intervals Therefore, educators must consider solutions that use electronic communication in ways that accommodate the contexts and properties, which define the technology How can educators design instructional activities using electronic communication that incorporate the social interactions and reflective processes that have become part of constructivist classrooms and promote professional growth? Researchers are beginning to claim that the use of an electronic discussion forum can promote active participation, student self-reliance, and increased levels of reflection on the part of the students in teacher education classrooms (Dutt-Doner and Powers, 2000; Creed, 1996) Dutt-Doner and Powers (2000) discussed results of using an electronic discussion forum in a sophomore-level elementary education course They claimed that electronic discussions are: a "faceless" communication system in which students are not as intimidated to participate as they would in face to face discussion even though their name appears in their postingsit allowed students to feel comfortable enough to share things with each other and participate in ways not possible during a class discussion (p 21) Nonis, Bronack, and Heaton (2000) also noted that the instructor must create a supportive environmental structure (actual and electronic) for meaningful discourse to occur As with any pedagogic change, simply inserting electronic discussion into the course is not enough to ensure the enhancement of that course (Espinoza, 2000; Johnson, 1997; Leu & Leu, 1997; Partee, 1996) Teacher education courses that use electronic communication must design the interactions in ways that facilitate meaningful reflection around course goals This article examines a specific technology used to promote reflection in a teacher education classroom, describes the nature of its use, and then discusses the results of a study that examined the impact of the technology on students' reflective and communicative abilities in the context of thinking about the teaching of elementary mathematics THE TECHNOLOGY SpeakEasy was designed by a team of faculty and staff at the Center for Teaching, Learning, and Technology (CTLT) at Washington State University to support instructors who wish to use online classroom communication …

Servant, Master, Double-Edged Sword: Metaphors Teachers Use to Discuss Technology

Abstract: Although technology and technology access are far from equitably distributed in our societies, technology is progressively pervasive. There is a baseline of technology integration with which the vast majority of our citizens must deal-- telephones and video players, upc scanners and computerized automobile accessories, bank transactions and online merchandise ordering to name but a few. Whether a baseline of technology integration exists in educational environments is more problematic. Communities, teachers, teacher educators, and educational researchers are continuing a 30-year-old debate (Nichols & Allen-Brown, 1996) about not only to what extent applications of technology should be integrated into schools but whether technology belongs in the curriculum at all. Admittedly the substance and tenor of this debate has changed substantially over its lifetime. The present concern is focused on the influence that teachers display over the degree to which technology and technology-related issues and activities are integrated into curriculum. And more specifically, to look at how the language that teachers use to describe technology influences the choices they make in this area. ********** Although the focus of this article is not the degree to which curricular technology integration is appropriate, the authors believe that there is substantial evidence that unique and powerful learning can take place when technology is designed to assist learning (Jonassen, 1996). If this is correct, then it is worth understanding how to assist teachers to take better advantage of the availability of technology-based resources. The use of any technology in the classroom is based primarily on teacher choices. After many years of investigating teacher technology competence and availability of technology-based resources to teachers (U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment, 1995) it appears that teacher technology skill training and providing equipment are not the sole answers to changing the way teachers use technology. Teachers still resist even when these resources are available and administrators, if they support technology integration, are loath to order teachers to use technology except in perfunctory ways (intra-building communication, attendance, lunch counts, grade reporting). Teacher training generally ascribes to the idea that reflection on practice assists teachers in understanding the practical theories that they bring to their work. The devices for reflection are all intended to help teachers eventually improve practice by becoming consciously aware of the beliefs that guide action. Investigation of the metaphors teachers use is being seen as a valuable tool in this pursuit (Bullough & Gitlin, 1995). Philosophically, authors have more strongly indicated the relationship between metaphor and action (Lakoff & Johnson, 1999). Most of that work is not directed toward understanding how teachers approach educational uses of technology and this study was designed to begin that investigation. THE POWER OF METAPHORS A metaphor is a linguistically efficient way to suggest similarities. "Different metaphors do different things--stimulate imagery, prompt comparisons, lend memorable expression to theories, evoke atmospheres, create a mood of conceptual disturbance" (Cooper, 1986 p. 168). Since metaphors are by design logical contradictions (one thing is represented to be something that it is not) at least three interpretations of metaphorical statements always exist--non-sense, literal, metaphorical. Metaphors cannot function in the ways Cooper suggested until they are interpreted by either the creator or receiver as metaphors. Interpretation is bound by culture and experience (Black, 1990). In this sense a metaphor is a context-dependent device. They can be and are interpreted differently based on the context in which they are interpreted. …

The Focusing Effect of Technology: Implications for Teacher Education

Abstract: When technology is implemented in classrooms, students often form ideas that are unexpected and unwanted by the teachers and the designers of the technology. This article advances the notion of the focusing effect of technology as a way of systematically accounting for the role of technology in such situations. A focusing effect refers to the direction of students' attention toward certain properties of the subject matter domain over others, brought about by the use of particular technological tools. Technology focuses students' attention in ways that are often not anticipated in advance and can have unintended consequences for students' conceptions. Vignettes are presented from two research studies, one involving graphing calculators and one involving mathematics software called SimCaic Mathworlds. The research findings are synthesized and reinterpreted in order to illustrate and develop the notion of the focusing effect of technology. The significance of this construct lies in the connection that it afford s between individual students' conceptions and the way technology is used in the instructional environment. Implications for teaching and for the preparation of teachers in the use of technology are discussed. ********** A number of researchers have critiqued the idea that computer software or devices such as graphing calculators can embody, in a transparent manner, the subject matter concepts that designers so carefully try to embed in the technology (Holyes & Noss, 1992; Lesh, Post, & Behr, 1987; Meira, 1998; Teasely & Roschelle, 1993). In fact, students routinely form ideas and interpret technological environments in ways that vary widely from what teachers and designers expect. Researchers relying upon a constructivist perspective explain why students "see" technology differently from adults by pointing to the role of prior knowledge and experiences (Bowers & Nickerson, 2000; Kieren, 1994; Noble, Nemirovsky, Tierney, & Wright, 1999). In an oft-cited example, Goldenberg (1988) illustrated how students view representations of functions in a graphing software environment differently from mathematically sophisticated adults. If one is familiar with graphs of linear functions, then he or she will expect the graph of the line y -5x-1 to move up vertically when they-intercept is changed from -1 to +1. However, beginners lack such algebraic sophistication and are more likely to perceive that the line segment moves diagonally from the bottom left corner of the computer screen to the top right corner. This article argues that inherent features of technology also play a critical role in situations in which students form unintended ideas. The notion of the focusing effect of technology is advanced in this article. A focusing effect refers to the regular direction of users' attention toward certain properties or patterns in the subject matter domain, which is brought about by the use of particular technological tools. Technology can focus students' attention in ways that are often not anticipated in advance but which may have unintended consequences for students' conceptions. The construct of focusing effects emerged from a synthesis of a series of studies conducted as part of an ongoing research project, the Generalization of Learning Mathematics in Multimedia Environments. The purpose of this article is to characterize the focusing effect of technology, identify the theoretical roots of this notion, illustrate the focusing effect of technology with two examples from research studies, and explicate the significance of this notion for teaching and teacher education. The examples presented here are drawn from two larger studies: (a) an investigation of a high school classroom implementation of a reform mathematics curricula in which graphing calculators were used regularly; and (b) a teaching experiment conducted with secondary school students using simulation software called Mathworlds (1996), which was developed for the SimCalc Project (directed by James Kaput). …

Using Computer Conferencing to Foster and Assess Prospective Teachers’ Moral Sensitivity

Abstract: Finding ways to better understand prospective teachers' development is central to teacher preparation. To effectively foster development, teacher educators must determine how their students conceptualize and understand teachers' work: How do they understand learning and learners? What are their general and specific understandings of subject matter? How do they understand the lines of action open to teachers and the consequences of the various choice made? How does their understanding of each of these aspects of teaching help them build a coherent and integrated understanding of teaching? The "new science of learning" tells us that to foster student understanding one thing teachers must do is to work with the understandings students bring with them and provide opportunities for students to take more control of their own learning (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999). To do this, teachers must first determine what those understandings are. ********** Technology is a powerful tool that can aid teacher educators in these endeavors. By designing applications as intellectual mirrors (Schwartz, 1989) they can be used to enhance as well as prompt attention to prospective teachers' evolving understandings. Applications designed and used in this way reflect the user's thinking and the consequences of their thinking. They reflect barriers to deep understanding including false assumptions, misconceptions, and naive understandings. The constructed, evolving, and transformative nature of learning is illuminated. Using applications as intellectual mirrors allows us to capture and reflect prospective teachers' cognitive and professional development. That information can then be used to further foster their development. Technology designed to enhance what and how our students know and used to support and challenge our students' current ways of making meaning requires an understanding of development across the life-span and a focus on how applications can be structured to support and challenge students to more complex ways of thinking and understanding. This also requires careful attention to how the applications are implemented. Schwartz and Perkins talked about a "'pedagogy of understanding' wherein students develop a genuine comprehension of key concepts, an improved ability to formulate and solve problems, and an overall grasp of the nature" of what is being taught (Schwartz & Perkins, 1995, p. 257). To implement a pedagogy of understanding we need to identify what we want prospective teachers to learn and design learning opportunities that help them develop the ability to formulate and solve the problems of teaching while illuminating, for them, the nature of teaching and learning. New technologies also seem especially s uited to helping us develop a pedagogy of understanding, particularly when those applications are designed to serve as intellectual mirrors of students' talk developing understanding of teaching and learning. The challenge for education is to design technologies for learning that draw both from knowledge about human cognition and from practical applications of how technology can facilitate complex tasks in the workplace. These designs use technology to scaffold thinking and activity, much as training wheels allow young bike riders to practice cycling when they would fall without support. Like training wheels, computer scaffolding enables learners to do more advanced activities and to engage in more advanced thinking and problem solving than they could without such help (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999, p. 202). It is time for students of teaching to receive that help. Using applications as intellectual mirrors and embedding them in a pedagogy of understanding will place us closer to that goal. A goal of the study discussed here is to examine one way in which that might be accomplished. CONFERENCING ACTIVITIES Conferencing activities can be a particularly powerful way to both foster and gain insight into prospective teachers' development. …

Exemption Exam for an Introductory Education Technology Course: Findings from Two Years of Use

Abstract: The need for teachers who are proficient in the use of technology in the classroom has increased dramatically over the past few years. The College of Education at the State University of West Georgia established an introductory technology course for all teacher education majors to meet this demand. This survey course provides students with a background in various instructional technologies as well as classroom integration strategies. At the time the course was created, many of the faculty involved believed that students entering the program would be sufficiently competent in technology to enable them to exempt the course. Those exempting the course would be able to take a different class in their content area. This article will provide an overview on how the exemption exam was created and implemented, as well as a measure of its effectiveness in identifying technology competent students. The expected participation in the exam has not materialized. Results from surveys in the introductory course indicate that students do not have the expected level of technology skill and that students who do possess the required skills would rather take the course than a different course in their program area. Recommendations include the retention of the course in the curriculum. ********** Colleges of Education are under increased pressure to make their programs more efficient (i.e., require fewer courses) and, at the same time, insure that their graduates are competent in more and more skill areas. These conflicting goals are apparent in many institutions' decision to eliminate the instructional technology courses to streamline their programs at the same time as national studies are showing a woeful lack of technology competency in today's teachers. Lewis Solmon (1998), in his report on the technological progress in schools in 21 states, found that less than 15% of teachers have advanced skills in technology. A recent national survey found that only 25% of the teachers responding reported using technology in a substantial way in their classrooms (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1999b). In another survey, only one fifth said they felt very well prepared to integrate technology into teaching (National Center for Educational Statistics, 1 999a). As a result of these and related findin gs, professional and regulatory organizations with direct and indirect influence on teacher education programs have issued reports, recommendations, and standards, all aimed at increasing the technology competencies of beginning teachers (CEO Forum on Education & Technology, 2000; International Society for Technology in Education, 2000b; National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2002). It is an accepted fact that proficiency in computer use is an increasingly necessary skill as our world becomes more technologically dependent. Thus, the need for technology proficient teachers can only be expected to increase in the future. Like many higher education institutions across the country, the College of Education at the State University of West Georgia (UWG) requires an introductory technology course for all teacher education majors to help address their need for technology skills. This survey course provides students with a background in various instructional technologies and classroom integration strategies. Although feeling the same pressures as many teacher education programs to streamline their curriculum, West Georgia decided not to eliminate the course but to provide an opportunity for students familiar with technology to exempt it. It was decided that those exempting the course would not decrease hours required for their programs, but that students would be required to replace the course with one from their content area. In addition to describing how and why the course and the exemption exam was created and administered, this article reports on data that were collected at the University of West Georgia to address the following four questions: 1. …

A Holocaust Website: Effects on Preservice Teachers’ Factual Knowledge and Attitudes Toward Traditionally Marginalized Groups

Abstract: The Holocaust remains one of the most effective and extensively documented subjects for an examination of basic humanitarian issues. Knowledge is the key to an intelligent understanding of such a tragic passage in human history, the key to a wisdom that will never let it happen again. To address the need for quality, accessible information about the Holocaust, the Florida Center for Instructional Technology developed an extensive website titled The Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust. This study was designed to investigate the effectiveness of the website. Specifically, data were collected by way of pre and posttest measures to determine if access to The Teacher's Guide to the Holocaust significantly impacted the knowledge level or attitudes of preservice teachers. The experiment was conducted at the University of South Florida in the spring of 2000 with students (n= 115) enrolled in the Introduction to Computers in Education course. Students were randomly assigned to a treatment condition in which the experimental group used the Holocaust website to develop a lesson plan, and students in a control condition interacted with a website that was unrelated to the Holocaust. Students in all treatment groups were administered a criterion-based knowledge instrument and two attitude scales. Results suggest that more cognitive engagement with the content area may be required to impact a significant change in preservice teachers' knowledge or attitudes. ********** Holocaust Education The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum's Guidelines for Teaching about the Holocaust (2001) states, "The history of the Holocaust represents one of the most effective, and most extensively documented subjects for a pedagogical examination of basic moral issues" (p. 1). It is a series of events occurring recently enough in Western history that legible documents, photographic imagery, film, and survivor testimony are available to the instructor or curriculum designer with which to create authentic student activities. Teachers can use historical events such as the Holocaust to warn of the horrifying results of racial and cultural intolerance, and thus help maintain a democratic and tolerant society. Analyses of the Holocaust can touch on a number of currently relevant human rights issues ranging from cultural intolerance to racism. In a study conducted in 1996, a sample of male and female students from six secondary schools in South East England (n=43) were presented with a series of questions which were intended to explore their knowledge and attitudes regarding the Holocaust and Holocaust education (Carrington & Short, 1997). They found students generally felt that Holocaust education played an important role in teaching about human rights issues in a variety of contexts. To effectively teach the Holocaust, teachers must be given the chance to develop knowledge and attitudes that are needed. Particularly in the social sciences, preservice teachers need to have the skills that are required to initiate and facilitate dialogue on culturally sensitive topics such as race and racism (Howard & Denning del Rosario, 2000). In addition to a knowledge base, they need the cultural awareness and practical know-how to put that knowledge base to use. In a study conducted to measure preservice teachers' knowledge regarding issues related to multicultural education, Taylor (1999) distributed a multicultural knowledge test to 78 preservice teacher education students (n=78) enrolled in three sections of a Social Foundations in Multicultural Education course. The test was a 35-item, seven-point Likert-type response format measure of topics and issues central to multicultural education knowledge. The instrument response format ranged from 1 (none) to 7 (extensive) to measure knowledge of topics and issues central to general multicultural education. …

A Deeper Psychology of Technology: A Case Study of a Girl and Her eMate

Abstract: In this article, it is argued that although the call for more research on technological implementation in our schools is justified, the past and current trends in this domain are ones with inevitable limits. Specifically, the relatively new field lacks careful analyses of the emotional and social development of students working with educational technologies. Research is presented in which a deeper psychology of technology afforded a more complete analysis and understanding of technology implementation. A case study is described, in which a girl uses a technology artifact as a way to mediate with her classmates, her teacher, and even her family. The article concludes with a call for expanding the analytical toolbox available to educational psychologists interested in technology adoption. THE NEED FOR A DEEPER PSYCHOLOGY (1,2) In an article entitled, The Learning Effectiveness of Educational Technology: A Call for Further Research, Jones and Paolucci made the claim that "a missing component of justifying the expansion of technology in educational delivery is the establishment of research agendas using formal research methodologies" (Jones & Paolucci, 1998, p. 2). The evidence to support their claim came from a three-year study of eight major refereed educational technology journals. The survey showed that only about 18% of all technology research completed addressed an evaluation of learning outcomes. A majority of the articles revolved around technology applications, development, or implementation. Jones and Paolucci's article, as well as their survey, pointed to a current trend in educational technology research programs--that of focusing solely on the cognitive domain in the relationship between technology and learning. This is not to suggest that measuring learning outcomes of technology use is an unnecessary or fruitless endeavor, only one with inevitable limits. There is a plain--one might say urgent--need for a more complete approach to research on technology integration. The problem with this trend in educational technology (often situated in educational psychology programs) is the disappearance of research addressing the affective domain of technology use. The statistics in the survey indicate an almost extinct population of articles relating to affect. There have been a number of articles which have attempted to break out of the cognitive domain by asking questions about perceptions, attitudes, and motivation in using technology (Lepper & Hodell, 1989; Cordova & Lepper, 1996). Many others have ventured into the affective domain only in so far as it helps to explain cognitive gains. Although these studies are leading the way for creating a new set of research tools, focusing on gaining a more complete psychology of technology must be continued. Clifford Geertz (1973) argued that "thick descriptions" are needed to better represent and understand human experience. And in his famous essay "Deep Play" (1972), he supplied a timely metaphor for a new field such as educational technology. Applying this metaphor of "depth" to educational technology essentially means opening it up to all of the tools available to us as psychologists rather than technologists. There are a number of psychological questions that, although normally associated with developmental psychology and psychoanalysis, may prove fruitful in the discussion of a "deeper" educational technology. Questions include the role of emotions through technology, mediating relationships with technology, and sense and meaning-making through technology. Many of these questions fall outside of the realm of the cognitive domain. This article argues that the limits of current tools in educational technology research may obscure--for researchers and (perhaps more importantly) teachers--what is happening in the classroom. It may also deny them the necessary tools to explain phenomena they encounter in the classroom and in the lives and minds of the subjects of their studies. …

Knowledge-Based Evaluation

Abstract: This article investigates the implications on formal evaluation theory when existing methods are viewed from an epistemic perspective A case is made that from this approach a meaningful evaluation might be made with only a shared justification system present Items of Truth and Belief, although of extreme interest to the parties of most evaluations, are shown to be irrelevant to the advancement of knowledge that may come about as a result of the evaluation itself The role of this system of justification is further expanded to literally define what a knowable item within the context of an evaluation might be These ideas are particularly explored within the contexts of emerging systems and domains of inquiry ********** From January 13-15th, 1999 I had the opportunity of attending a series of meetings on continuing accreditation sponsored by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) During these meetings, numerous evaluation problematics were discussed and I found myself surrounded by evaluation issues within the performance assessment arena Some of these included how one identifies the nature of that which is to be evaluated, how it might be done In particular, one issue kept coming to my mind regarding the artificial distinction which is faced in nearly every evaluation between how one records the evaluation process itself as opposed to merely recording the products that are to be evaluated This directly stimulated this discussion As I examined the working definitions for the terms knowledge and understanding we were provided with in these sessions, I found them nearly opposite from the same definitions when defined from a traditional epistemic perspective As presented in the workshops, the best descriptors I could get were: Knowledge--a threshold awareness of, and Understanding--a more comprehensive, thorough level, which permits interpretation of the content in each standard These differences go beyond semantics and have far reaching implications that make them far from a trivial matter If knowledge is to be equated with mere awareness it should come as no surprise that many participants at this NCATE session came to feel that the evaluation, and subsequent report of the evaluation, can and should be expressed in concrete and easily documented artifacts A simple checklist, as it were, could serve as a knowledge proof If we adopt a more robust view of knowledge, however, a checklist approach is clearly inadequate Let us take the position that knowledge, whatever else it may entail, cannot be captured by a simple awareness--but is rather a network of relationships between justification systems, truth, and belief This notion is not unique to this article, and indeed serves as a fairly traditional component of many epistemological discussions (Whitehead, (1978) for one such discussion) For the sake of argument, let us propose the following working definition for knowledge: K = J T B where K refers to Knowledge, J to Justification, T to Truth, and B to Beliefs Let us further imagine that as a starting point that these terms are in their perfect ideal state and are totally understood in their entirety by all potential knowers A bit ambitious premise, but at least we are advancing from mere awareness It is clear that this defintion will not hold up for long In the post-modern world in which we live most people no longer accept the idea of a universal Truth Truth is viewed, for the most part, as consisting of sets of contextually dependent truths When we adapt our traditional knowledge equation to reflect this scenario we could define some locally dependent truths (as opposed to Truth) which best reflects the current state-of-the-art within the field So now we have: K = J t B As might be guessed, this is not the only compromise that must be made in this ideal formulation …