IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SPEECH AND AUDIO PROCESSING, VOL. 13, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2005 1035
A Tutorial on Onset Detection in Music Signals
Juan Pablo Bello, Laurent Daudet, Samer Abdallah, Chris Duxbury, Mike Davies, and
Mark B. Sandler, Senior Member, IEEE
Abstract—Note onset detection and localization is useful in a
number of analysis and indexing techniques for musical signals.
The usual way to detect onsets is to look for “transient” regions in
the signal, a notion that leads to many definitions: a sudden burst
of energy, a change in the short-time spectrum of the signal or in
the statistical properties, etc. The goal of this paper is to review,
categorize, and compare some of the most commonly used tech-
niques for onset detection, and to present possible enhancements.
We discuss methods based on the use of explicitly predefined signal
features: the signal’s amplitude envelope, spectral magnitudes and
phases, time-frequency representations; and methods based on
probabilistic signal models: model-based change point detection,
surprise signals, etc. Using a choice of test cases, we provide
some guidelines for choosing the appropriate method for a given
application.
Index Terms—Attack transcients, audio, note segmentation, nov-
elty detection.
I. INTRODUCTION
A. Background and Motivation
M
USIC is to a great extent an event-based phenomenon for
both performer and listener. We nod our heads or tap our
feet to the rhythm of a piece; the performer’s attention is focused
on each successive note. Even in non note-based music, there
are transitions as musical timbre and tone color evolve. Without
change, there can be no musical meaning.
The automatic detection of events in audio signals gives new
possibilities in a number of music applications including con-
tent delivery, compression, indexing and retrieval. Accurate re-
trieval depends on the use of appropriate features to compare
and identify pieces of music. Given the importance of musical
events, it is clear that identifying and characterizing these events
is an important aspect of this process. Equally, as compres-
sion standards advance and the drive for improving quality at
low bit-rates continues, so does accurate event detection be-
come a basic requirement: disjoint audio segments with homo-
geneous statistical properties, delimited by transitions or events,
can be compressed more successfully in isolation than they can
Manuscript received August 6, 2003; revised July 21, 2004. The associate ed-
itor coordinating the review of this manuscript and approving it for publication
was Dr. Gerald Schuller.
J. P. Bello, S. Abdallah, M. Davies, and M. B. Sandler are with the Centre for
Digital Music, Department of Electronic Engineering, Queen Mary, University
of London, London E1 4NS, U.K. (e-mail: juan.bello-correa@elec.qmul.ac.uk;
samer.abdallah@elec.qmul.ac.uk; mike.davies@elec.qmul.ac.uk; mark.san-
dler@elec.qmul.ac.uk).
L. Daudet is with the Laboratoire d’Acoustique Musicale, Université Pierre
et Marie Curie (Paris 6), 75015 Paris, France (e-mail: daudet@lam.jussieu.fr).
C. Duxbury is with the Centre for Digital Music, Department of Elec-
tronic Engineering, Queen Mary, University of London, London E1 4NS,
U.K., and also with WaveCrest Communications Ltd. (e-mail: christo-
pher.duxbury@elec.qmul.ac.uk).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TSA.2005.851998
Fig. 1. “Attack,” “transient,” “decay,” and “onset” in the ideal case of a single
note.
in combination with dissimilar regions. Finally, accurate seg-
mentation allows a large number of standard audio editing al-
gorithms and effects (e.g., time-stretching, pitch-shifting) to be
more signal-adaptive.
There have been many different approaches for onset detec-
tion. The goal of this paper is to give an overview of the most
commonly used techniques, with a special emphasis on the ones
that have been employed in the authors’ different applications.
For the sake of coherence, the discussion will be focused on
the more specific problem of note onset detection in musical
signals, although we believe that the discussed methods can be
useful for various different tasks (e.g., transient modeling or lo-
calization) and different classes of signals (e.g., environmental
sounds, speech).
B. Definitions: Transients vs. Onsets vs. Attacks
A central issue here is to make a clear distinction between the
related concepts of transients, onsets and attacks. The reason
for making these distinctions clear is that different applications
have different needs. The similarities and differences between
these key concepts are important to consider; it is similarly im-
portant to categorize all related approaches. Fig. 1 shows, in the
simple case of an isolated note, how one could differentiate these
notions.
• The attack of the note is the time interval during which
the amplitude envelope increases.
1063-6676/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
1036 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SPEECH AND AUDIO PROCESSING, VOL. 13, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2005
• The concept of transient is more difficult to describe pre-
cisely. As a preliminary informaldefinition,transients are
short intervals during which the signal evolves quickly
in some nontrivial or relatively unpredictable way. In the
case of acoustic instruments, the transient often corre-
sponds to the period during which the excitation (e.g., a
hammer strike) is applied and then damped, leaving only
the slow decay at the resonance frequencies of the body.
Central to this time duration problem is the issue of the
useful time resolution: we will assume that the human ear
cannot distinguish between two transients less than 10
ms apart [1]. Note that the release or offset of a sustained
sound can also be considered a transient period.
• The onset of the note is a single instant chosen to mark
the temporally extended transient. In most cases, it will
coincide with the start of the transient, or the earliest
time at which the transient can be reliably detected.
C. General Scheme of Onset Detection Algorithms
In the more realistic case of a possibly noisy polyphonic
signal, where multiple sound objects may be present at a given
time, the above distinctions become less precise. It is generally
not possible to detect onsets directly without first quantifying
the time-varying “transientness” of the signal.
Audio signals are both additive (musical objects in poly-
phonic music superimpose and not conceal each other) and
oscillatory. Therefore, it is not possible to look for changes
simply by differentiating the original signal in the time domain;
this has to be done on an intermediate signal that reflects, in
a simplified form, the local structure of the original. In this
paper, we refer to such a signal as a detection function; in the
literature, the term novelty function is sometimes used instead
[2].
Fig. 2 illustrates the procedure employed in the majority
of onset detection algorithms: from the original audio signal,
which can be pre-processed to improve the performance of
subsequent stages, a detection function is derived at a lower
sampling rate, to which a peak-picking algorithm is applied
to locate the onsets. Whereas peak-picking algorithms are
well documented in the literature, the diversity of existing
approaches for the construction of the detection function makes
the comparison between onset detection algorithms difficult for
audio engineers and researchers.
D. Outline of the Paper
The outline of this paper follows the flowchart in Fig. 2. In
Section II, we review a number of preprocessing techniques that
can be employed to enhance the performance of some of the de-
tection methods. Section III presents a representative cross-sec-
tion of algorithms for the construction of the detection function.
In Section IV, we describe some basic peak-picking algorithms;
this allows the comparative study of the performance of a se-
lection of note onset detection methods given in Section V. We
finish our discussion in Section VI with a review of our find-
ings and some thoughts on the future development of these al-
gorithms and their applications.
Fig. 2. Flowchart of a standard onset detection algorithm.
II. PREPROCESSING
The concept of preprocessing implies the transformation of
the original signal in order to accentuate or attenuate various
aspects of the signal according to their relevance to the task in
hand. It is an optional step that derives its relevance from the
process or processes to be subsequently performed.
There are a number of different treatments that can be ap-
plied to a musical signal in order to facilitate the task of onset
detection. However, we will focus only on two processes that
are consistently mentioned in the literature, and that appear to
be of particular relevance to onset detection schemes, especially
when simple reduction methods are implemented: separating
the signal into multiple frequency bands, and transient/steady-
state separation.
A. Multiple Bands
Several onset detection studies have found it useful to in-
dependently analyze information across different frequency
bands. In some cases this preprocessing is needed to satisfy
the needs of specific applications that require detection in in-
dividual sub-bands to complement global estimates; in others,
such an approach can be justified as a way of increasing the
robustness of a given onset detection method.
As examples of the first scenario, two beat tracking systems
make use of filter banks to analyze transients across frequencies.
BELLO et al.: A TUTORIAL ON ONSET DETECTION IN MUSIC SIGNALS 1037
Goto [3] slices the spectrogram into spectrum strips and recog-
nizes onsets by detecting sudden changes in energy. These are
used in a multiple-agent architecture to detect rhythmic patterns.
Scheirer [4] implements a six-band filter bank, using sixth-order
elliptic filters, and psychoacoustically inspired processing to
produce onset trains. These are fed into comb-filter resonators
in order to estimate the tempo of the signal.
The second case is illustrated by models such as the percep-
tual onset detector introduced by Klapuri [5]. In this implemen-
tation, a filter bank divides the signal into eight nonoverlapping
bands. In each band, onset times and intensities are detected and
finally combined. The filter-bank model is used as an approxi-
mation to the mechanics of the human cochlea.
Another example is the method proposed by Duxbury et al.
[6], that uses a constant-Q conjugate quadrature filter bank to
separate the signal into five subbands. It goes a step further by
proposing a hybrid scheme that considers energy changes in
high-frequency bands and spectral changes in lower bands. By
implementing a multiple-band scheme, the approach effectively
avoids the constraints imposed by the use of a single reduction
method, while having different time resolutions for different fre-
quency bands.
B. Transient/Steady-State Separation
The process of transient/steady-state separation is usually as-
sociated with the modeling of music signals, which is beyond
the scope of this paper. However, there is a fine line between
modeling and detection, and indeed, some modeling schemes
directed at representing transients may hold promise for onset
detection. Below, we briefly describe several methods that pro-
duce modified signals (residuals, transient signals) that can be,
or have been, used for the purpose of onset detection.
Sinusoidal models, such as “additive synthesis” [7], represent
an audio signal as a sum of sinusoids with slowly varying pa-
rameters. Amongst these methods, spectral modeling synthesis
(SMS) [8] explicitly considers the residual
1
of the synthesis
method as a Gaussian white noise filtered with a slowly varying
low-order filter. Levine [9] calculates the residual between the
original signal and a multiresolution SMS model. Significant in-
creases in the energy of the residual show a mismatch between
the model and the original, thus effectively marking onsets. An
extension of SMS, transient modeling synthesis, is presented
in [10]. Transient signals are analyzed by a sinusoidal anal-
ysis/synthesis similar to SMS on the discrete cosine transform
of the residual, hence in a pseudo-temporal domain. In [11], the
whole scheme, including tonal and transients extraction is gen-
eralized into a single matching pursuit formulation.
An alternative approach for the segregation of sinusoids from
transient/noise components is proposed by Settel and Lippe [12]
and later refined by Duxbury et al. [13]. It is based on the phase-
vocoder principle of instantaneous frequency (see Section III-
A.3) that allows the classification of individual frequency bins
of a spectrogram according to the predictability of their phase
components.
1
The residual signal results from the subtraction of the modeled signal from
the original waveform. When sinusoidal or harmonic modeling is used, then the
residual is assumed to contain most of the impulse-like, noisy components of
the original signal—e.g., transients.
Other schemes for the separation of tonal from nontonal com-
ponents make use of lapped orthogonal transforms, such as the
modified discrete cosine transform (MDCT), first introduced by
Princen and Bradley [14]. These algorithms, originally designed
for compression [15], [16], make use of the relative sparsity of
MDCT representations of most musical signals: a few large co-
efficients account for most of the signal’s energy. Actually, since
the MDCT atoms are very tone-like (they are cosine functions
slowly modulated in time by a smooth window), the part of the
signal represented by the large MDCT atoms, according to a
given threshold, can be interpreted as the tonal part of the signal
[10], [17]. Transients and noise can be obtained by removing
those large MDCT atoms.
III. R
EDUCTION
In the context of onset detection, the concept of reduction
refers to the process of transforming the audio signal into a
highly subsampled detection function which manifests the oc-
currence of transients in the original signal. This is the key
process in a wide class of onset detection schemes and will
therefore be the focus of most of our review.
We will broadly divide reduction methods in two groups:
methods based on the use of explicitly predefined signal fea-
tures, and methods based on probabilistic signal models.
A. Reduction Based on Signal Features
1) Temporal Features: When observing the temporal evo-
lution of simple musical signals, it is noticeable that the oc-
currence of an onset is usually accompanied by an increase of
the signal’s amplitude. Early methods of onset detection capi-
talized on this by using a detection function which follows the
amplitude envelope of the signal [18]. Such an “envelope fol-
lower” can be easily constructed by rectifying and smoothing
(i.e., low-pass filtering) the signal
(1)
where
is an -point window or smoothing kernel, cen-
tered at
. This yields satisfactory results for certain appli-
cations where strong percussive transients exist against a quiet
background. A variation on this is to follow the local energy,
rather than the amplitude, by squaring, instead of rectifying,
each sample
(2)
Despite the smoothing, this reduced signal in its raw form is
not usually suitable for reliable onset detection by peak picking.
A further refinement, included in a number of standard onset
detection algorithms, is to work with the time derivative of the
energy (or rather the first difference for discrete-time signals) so
that sudden rises in energy are transformed into narrow peaks in
the derivative. The energy and its derivative are commonly used
in combination with preprocessing, both with filter-banks [3]
and transient/steady-state separation [9], [19].
1038 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SPEECH AND AUDIO PROCESSING, VOL. 13, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2005
Another refinement takes its cue from psychoacoustics: em-
pirical evidence [20] indicates that loudness is perceived loga-
rithmically. This means that changes in loudness are judged rel-
ative to the overall loudness, since, for a continuous time signal,
. Hence, computing the first-dif-
ference of
roughly simulates the ear’s perception of
loudness. An application of this technique to multiple bands [5]
showed a significant reduction in the tendency for amplitude
modulation to cause the detection of spurious onsets.
2) Spectral Features: A number of techniques have been
proposed that use the spectral structure of the signal to produce
more reliable detection functions. While reducing the need for
preprocessing (e.g., removal of the tonal part), these methods
are also successful in a number of scenarios, including onset
detection in polyphonic signals with multiple instruments.
Let us consider the short-time Fourier transform (STFT) of
the signal
(3)
where
is again an -point window, and is the hop size,
or time shift, between adjacent windows.
In the spectral domain, energy increases linked to transients
tend to appear as a broadband event. Since the energy of the
signal is usually concentrated at low frequencies, changes due
to transients are more noticeable at high frequencies [21]. To
emphasize this, the spectrum can be weighted preferentially to-
ward high frequencies before summing to obtain a weighted en-
ergy measure
(4)
where
is the frequency dependent weighting. By Parseval’s
theorem, if
, is simply equivalent to the local
energy as previously defined. Note also that a choice of
would give the local energy of the derivative of the signal.
Masri [22] proposes a high frequency content (HFC) function
with
, linearly weighting each bin’s contribution in
proportion to its frequency. The HFC function produces sharp
peaks during attack transients and is notably successful when
faced with percussive onsets, where transients are well modeled
as bursts of white noise.
These spectrally weighted measures are based on the instanta-
neous short-term spectrum of the signal, thus omitting any ex-
plicit consideration of its temporal evolution. Alternatively, a
number of other approaches do consider these changes, using
variations in spectral content between analysis frames in order
to generate a more informative detection function.
Rodet and Jaillet [21] propose a method where the frequency
bands of a sequence of STFTs are analyzed independently
using a piece-wise linear approximation to the magnitude
profile
for , where is a short
temporal window, and
is a fixed value. The parameters of
these approximations are used to generate a set of band-wise
detection functions, later combined to produce final onset re-
sults. Detection results are robust for high-frequencies, showing
consistency with Masri’s HFC approach.
A more general approach based on changes in the spectrum
is to formulate the detection function as a “distance” between
successive short-term Fourier spectra, treating them as points
in an
-dimensional space. Depending on the metric chosen to
calculate this distance, different spectral difference, or spectral
flux, detection functions can be constructed: Masri [22] uses the
-norm of the difference between magnitude spectra, whereas
Duxbury [6] uses the
-norm on the rectified difference
(5)
where
, i.e., zero for negative arguments.
The rectification has the effect of counting only those frequen-
cies where there is an increase in energy, and is intended to em-
phasize onsets rather than offsets.
A related form of spectral difference is introduced by Foote
[2] to obtain a measure of “audio novelty”.
2
A similarity matrix
is calculated using the correlation between STFT feature vectors
(power spectra). The matrix is then correlated with a “checker-
board” kernel to detect the edges between areas of high and low
similarity. The resulting function shows sharp peaks at the times
of these changes, and is effectively an onset detection function
when kernels of small width are used.
3) Spectral Features Using Phase: All the mentioned
methods have in common their use of the magnitude of the
spectrum as their only source of information. However, recent
approaches make also use of the phase spectra to further their
analyses of the behavior of onsets. This is relevant since much
of the temporal structure of a signal is encoded in the phase
spectrum.
Let us define
the -unwrapped phase of a given STFT
coefficient
. For a steady state sinusoid, the phase ,
as well as the phase in the previous window
, are used
to calculate a value for the instantaneous frequency, an estimate
of the actual frequency of the
STFT component within this
window, as [23]
(6)
where
is the hop size between windows and is the sampling
frequency.
It is expected that, for a locally stationary sinusoid, the in-
stantaneous frequency should be approximately constant over
adjacent windows. Thus, according to (6), this is equivalent to
the phase increment from window to window remaining approx-
imately constant (cf. Fig. 3)
(7)
2
The term novelty function is common to the literature in machine learning
and communication theory, and is widely used for video segmentation. In the
context of onset detection, our notion of the detection function can be seen also
as a novelty function, in that it tries to measure the extent to which an event is
unusual given a series of observations in the past.
BELLO et al.: A TUTORIAL ON ONSET DETECTION IN MUSIC SIGNALS 1039
Fig. 3. Phase diagram showing instantaneous frequencies as phase derivative
over adjacent frames. For a stationary sinusoid this should stay constant (dotted
line).
Equivalently, the phase deviation can be defined as the second
difference of the phase
(8)
During a transient region, the instantaneous frequency is not
usually well defined, and hence
will tend to be large.
This is illustrated in Fig. 3.
In [24], Bello proposes a method that analyzes the instan-
taneous distribution (in the sense of a probability distribution
or histogram) of phase deviations across the frequency domain.
During the steady-state part of a sound, deviations tend to zero,
thus the distribution is strongly peaked around this value. During
attack transients,
values increase, widening and flat-
tening the distribution. In [24], this behavior is quantified by
calculating the inter-quartile range and the kurtosis of the dis-
tribution. In [25], a simpler measure of the spread of the distri-
bution is calculated as
(9)
i.e., the mean absolute phase deviation. The method, although
showing some improvement for complex signals, is susceptible
to phase distortion and to noise introduced by the phases of com-
ponents with no significant energy.
As an alternative to the sole use of magnitude or phase in-
formation, [26] introduces an approach that works with Fourier
coefficients in the complex domain. The stationarity of the
spectral bin is quantified by calculating the Euclidean distance
between the observed and that predicted by the
previous frames,
(10)
These distances are summed across the frequency-domain to
generate an onset detection function
(11)
See [27] for an application of this technique to multiple
bands. Other preprocessing, such as the removal of the tonal
part, may introduce distortions to the phase information and thus
adversely affect the performance of subsequent phase-based
onset detection methods.
4) Time-Frequency and Time-Scale Analysis: An alternative
to the analysis of the temporal envelope of the signal and of
Fourier spectral coefficients, is the use of time-scale or time-
frequency representations (TFR).
In [28] a novelty function is calculated by measuring the
dissimilarity between feature vectors corresponding to a dis-
cretized Cohen’s class TFR, in this case the result of convolving
the Wigner-Ville TFR of the function with a Gaussian kernel.
Note that the method could be also seen as a spectral difference
approach, given that by choosing an appropriate kernel, the rep-
resentation becomes equivalent to the spectrogram of the signal.
In [29], an approach for transient detection is described based
on a simple dyadic wavelet decomposition of the residual signal.
This transform, using the Haar wavelet, was chosen for its sim-
plicity and its good time localization at small scales. The scheme
takes advantage of the correlations across scales of the coef-
ficients: large wavelet coefficients, related to transients in the
signal, are not evenly spread within the dyadic plane but rather
form “structures”. Indeed, if a given coefficient has a large am-
plitude, there is a high probability that the coefficients with the
same time localization at smaller scales also have large ampli-
tudes, therefore forming dyadic trees of significant coefficients.
The significance of full-size branches of coefficients, from the
largest to the smallest scale, can be quantified by a regularity
modulus, which is a local measure of the regularity of the signal
(12)
where the
are the wavelet coefficients, is the full branch
leading to a given small-scale coefficient
(i.e., the set of
coefficients at larger scale and same time localization), and
a free parameter used to emphasize certain scales ( is
often used in practice). Since increases of
are related to the
existence of large, transient-like coefficients in the branch
,
the regularity modulus can effectively act as an onset detection
function.
B. Reduction Based on Probability Models
Statistical methods for onset detection are based on the as-
sumption that the signal can be described by some probability
model. A system can then be constructed that makes proba-
bilistic inferences about the likely times of abrupt changes in
the signal, given the available observations. The success of this
approach depends on the closeness of fit between the assumed
model, i.e., the probability distribution described by the model,
and the “true” distribution of the data, and may be quantified
using likelihood measures or Bayesian model selection criteria.
1) Model-Based Change Point Detection Methods: A well-
known approach is based on the sequential probability ratio test
[30]. It presupposes that the signal samples
are generated
