University of Nebraska - Lincoln
DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln
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Experimental Analysis of a Web-Based Training
Intervention to Develop Positive Psychological
Capital
Fred Luthans
University of Nebraska-Lincoln;43(!.24.,%$4
James B. Avey
Central Washington University!5%8*#64%$4
Jaime L. Patera
University of Nebraska - Lincoln
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Although the importance of positivity has been given
attention through the years, only recently has it been
proposed as a new (or at least renewed) lens to focus
study on organizational behavior (Cameron, Dutton, &
Quinn, 2003; Luthans, 2002a, 2002b; Luthans & Youssef,
2007; Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007; Nelson & Cooper,
2007; Roberts, 2006; Turner, Barling, & Zacharatos, 2002;
Wright, 2003). Drawn from the recent positive psychol-
ogy movement (Peterson, 2006; Peterson & Seligman,
2004; Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000; Snyder & Lo-
pez, 2002) and to differentiate from the more macro-
oriented positive organizational scholarship (Cameron
& Caza, 2004; Cameron et al., 2003; Spreitzer & Sonen-
shein, 2004), Luthans (2002b: 59) has defined positive
organizational behavior as “the study and application of
positively oriented human resource strengths and psy-
chological capacities that can be measured, developed,
and effectively managed for performance improvement
in today’s workplace.”
As indicated in this definition, the specific criteria
to determine positive capacities include being based
on theory and research with valid measurement (to dif-
ferentiate from the popular positive personal develop-
ment literature and techniques), and also being state-
like. This “state-like” criterion means that the capacity
must be malleable and open to development, as op-
posed to trait-like, relatively fixed, as is found in widely
recognized Big Five personality characteristics (Mount
& Barrick, 1995); core self-evaluations (self-esteem, gen-
eralized efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stabil-
ity; Judge & Bono, 2001); or positive affectivity (Watson,
Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). The psychological resources
that have been determined to best meet these defi-
nitional criteria of positive organizational behavior
are hope, efficacy, optimism, and resilience (Luthans,
2002a; Luthans & Youssef, 2007; Luthans, Youssef, & Avo-
lio, 2007).
Theory development (Luthans & Avolio, 2008; Lu-
thans & Youssef, 2004; Luthans & Youssef, 2007; Lu-
thans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007) and accumulating re-
search (Avey, Wernsing, & Luthans, 2008; Avey, Patera,
& West, 2006; Luthans, Avolio, Avey, & Norman, 2007; Lu-
thans, Avey, Clapp-Smith, & Li, 2008; Luthans, Avolio, Wa-
lumbwa, & Li, 2005) indicate that the identified positive
organizational behavior states may represent a single
latent, core factor termed psychological capital, or sim-
Published in Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2008, Vol.7 No. 2, pp. 209-221
Copyright © 2008 Academy of Management. Used by permission
Experimental Analysis of a
Web-Based Training Intervention to Develop
Positive Psychological Capital
Fred Luthans
University of Nebraska–Lincoln
James B. Avey
Central Washington University
Jaime L. Patera
University of Nebraska–Lincoln
Abstract
Psychological capital with components of hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and resiliency has recently emerged as a core construct
in taking positive psychology to the workplace. A distinguishing feature is that it is “state-like” and thus open to development.
We analyze whether such psychological capital can be developed through a highly focused, 2-hour web-based training inter-
vention. Using a pretest, posttest experimental design (n = 187 randomly assigned to the treatment group and n = 177 to the
control group), we found support that psychological capital can be developed by such a training intervention.
209
digitalcommons.unl.edu
digitalcommons.unl.edu
210 Lu t h a n s , a v e y , & P a t e r a i n A c A d e m y o f m A n A g e m e n t L e A r n i n g & e d u c A t i o n 7 ( 2 00 8 )
ply Psy-Cap. PsyCap is defined as “an individual’s pos-
itive psychological state of development and is charac-
terized by: (1.) having confidence (self-efficacy) to take
on and put in the necessary effort to succeed at chal-
lenging tasks; (2.) making a positive attribution (opti-
mism) about succeeding now and in the future; (3.) per-
severing toward goals, and when necessary, redirecting
paths to goals (hope) in order to succeed; and (4.) when
beset by problems and adversity, sustaining and bounc-
ing back and even beyond (resiliency) to attain success”
(Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007: 3).
Although research studies are demonstrating the im-
pact that PsyCap may have on performance (Luthans,
Avolio et al., 2007; Luthans, Avey et al., 2008; Luthans
et al., 2005; Luthans, Norman et al., 2008; Youssef & Lu-
thans, 2007), satisfaction and/or commitment (Larson &
Luthans, 2006; Luthans, Avolio et al., 2007; Luthans, Nor-
man et al., 2008; Youssef & Luthans, 2007) and absen-
teeism (Avey, Patera, & West, 2006), to date there has
only been practical guidelines and unpublished pre-
liminary evidence that it can be developed through
the proposed Psychological Capital Intervention (PCI)
model (see Luthans, Avey, Avolio, Norman, & Combs,
2006; Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007). In particular, de-
velopment and empirical assessment of PsyCap through
a technology (i.e., Internet) mediated intervention has
not been attempted.
Explicit in this web-based intervention model is the
focus on the developmental nature of each component
(i.e., hope, self-efficacy, optimism, and resilience), as well
as when combined, development of the underlying core
construct of PsyCap. We propose this web-based PsyCap
intervention represents a conceptual and pragmatic pro-
gression from teaching and training principles delivered
face-to-face that have traditionally focused on develop-
ing human capital (who you are in terms of knowledge,
experience, and skills) to expanding to the development
of the more recently recognized psychological capital
(who you are and what you can become; Luthans, Luthans,
& Luthans, 2004; Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007).
We propose the time has come to focus training inter-
ventions on developing positive psychological state-like
capacities, such as PsyCap, that can be constructed and
operationalized for web delivery. Such web-based in-
terventions can take advantage of the benefits of speed,
convenience, cost, and effectiveness in the field of lead-
ership and human resource development. The purpose
of this study is to test the feasibility and effectiveness
of such a development strategy by addressing the fol-
lowing research question: “Can the four psychological
resources of hope, efficacy, optimism, and resilience as
indicators of the core factor of psychological capital
be developed in a highly focused, short duration, web-
based intervention?”
Theoretical Foundation
The theory building for the four positive states and
the core construct of PsyCap have been covered in de-
tail elsewhere (e.g., see Luthans, 2002a, 2002b; Luthans
& Avolio, 2008; Luthans, Avolio et al., 2007; Luthans &
Youssef, 2007; Luthans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007). How-
ever, for the purposes of this study, we will briefly sum-
marize this theoretical foundation and then concentrate
more on the developmental potential of PsyCap through
a short web-based training intervention.
The Hope State
Although each of the four identified states underly-
ing PsyCap are commonly used in everyday language,
in the field of positive psychology, they are charac-
terized by a strong theoretical foundation, consider-
able research, and valid measures. For example, Sny-
der and colleagues have defined hope as a “positive
motivational state [italics added] based on an inter-
actively derived sense of successful (a) agency (goal
directed energy) and (b) pathways (planning to meet
goals)” (Snyder, Irving, & Anderson, 1991: 287). Thus,
hope consists of three major conceptual foundations:
agency, pathways, and goals. Specifically, hope is the
aggregate of the agency, or goal-directed determina-
tion/ willpower, and the pathways, the ways to achieve
goals (Snyder et al., 1991). The willpower-and-pathways
thinking operates in a combined iterative process in or-
der to generate hope (Snyder, 2000).
Although sometimes presented as dispositional, the
developmental capacity of hope has been clearly sup-
ported (Snyder, 2000; Snyder et al., 1991; Snyder et al.,
1996). For example, in clinical applications, there is ev-
idence that hope can be learned through an intentional
focus on solution-based training interventions (Sny-
der, 1994), and more recently, Snyder and colleagues
(2000, 2002) have demonstrated the developmental na-
ture of state hope across multiple studies using a goal-
based framework. Based on this body of research, we
posit that hope can also be developed in organizational
participants through a carefully designed (described
in the following Methods section) webbased training
intervention.
The Efcacy State
Self-efficacy, or “one’s conviction (or confidence)
about his or her abilities to mobilize the motivation,
We b - b a s e d i n t e r v e n t i o n t o d e v e L o P Po s i t i v e P s y c h o L o g i c a L c a P i t a L 211
cognitive resources or courses of action needed to
successfully execute a specific task within a given con-
text” (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998: 66) is based on Bandu-
ra’s (1986, 1997) social cognitive theory. His widely rec-
ognized sources of efficacy development include task
mastery, vicarious learning or modeling, social persua-
sion, and psychological or physiological arousal.
First, when employees successfully execute a given
task, they have enacted task mastery over that par-
ticular task, increasing self-efficacy. Second, employ-
ees’ efficacy may be increased when they vicariously
learn by watching relevant others accomplish the task
(i.e., modeling processes). This source of efficacy de-
velopment has foundations in Bandura’s (1986) social
learning theory with an emphasis on the modeling
process. Third, when relevant, respected others (e.g.,
managers or peers) express confidence in the employ-
ee’s ability to execute a given task or provide positive
feedback on progress, efficacy is enhanced. Fourth,
efficacy is developed through psychological and phys-
iological arousal, or the belief that one is mentally and/
or physically fit to accomplish the task. Each source
of efficacy can be considered a strategy for use in a
web-based training intervention whereby participants
may learn to be efficacious in task- or domain-specific
applications.
The Optimism State
Similar to hope, optimism is commonly discussed, but
in positive psychology, Seligman (1998) utilizes an at-
tribution or explanatory style to understand it. He de-
fines optimists as those who make internal, stable, and
global attributions regarding positive events (e.g., goal
achievement), but attribute external, unstable, and spe-
cific reasons for negative events (e.g., a missed dead-
line). Carver and Scheier (2002) offer complementary
work with distinct theoretical underpinnings utilizing
an expectancy framework noting, “optimists are peo-
ple who expect good things to happen to them; pessi-
mists are people who expect bad things to happen to
them” (2002: 231).
Like hope, optimism has been theorized to have
both trait-like and, more applicable to this theoreti-
cal foundation for PsyCap, state-like characteristics.
For example, Seligman (1998) demonstrates the de-
velopmental nature of optimism with his concept of
“learned optimism.” This argument was suggested
many decades ago as Beck (1967) provided theory
and research on developing optimistic expectations
in clinical patients. In addition, although often associ-
ated with dispositional optimism, Carver and Scheier
(2002) have recently discussed plausible change in
an optimistic direction and propose the need of inter-
vention strategies to portray the developmental na-
ture of optimism. Overall, optimism development has
been used in clinical interventions, practitioner-ori-
ented leadership books, and has been theorized and
researched by widely recognized positive psycholo-
gists. Thus, we propose that the optimism of organiza-
tional participants can be open to development in a
web-based training intervention.
The Resilience State
Resilience, the fourth state-like construct determined
to meet the criteria of psychological capital, is identified
in positive psychology as one’s ability, when faced with
adversity, to rebound or “bounce back” from a setback
or failure (Block & Kremen, 1996; Masten et al., 1985).
It has been traditionally focused on “at risk” youth who
succeed despite severe odds and adversity. Positive
emotions have been shown empirically to enhance resil-
ience in the face of negative events (Tugade, Fredrick-
son, & Barrett, 2004). As this dynamic learning process
of resilience focuses on positive adaptation, develop-
mental interventions serving to maximize assets or re-
sources and minimize risk factors (Masten, 2001; Masten
& Reed, 2002) provide successful strategies for resil-
ience-focused interventions (Bonanno, 2005; Luthans,
Vogelgesang, & Lester, 2006; Schoon, 2006) that can be
incorporated into a web-based training intervention.
The Psychological Capital Core Construct
The theory and research on a higher order, core con-
struct of psychological capital (PsyCap) comprised of
hope, efficacy, optimism, and resilience has been sup-
ported by recent research (Luthans, Avolio et al., 2007).
The identification of such second-order factors has be-
come increasingly common in organizational behavior
research. Examples include transformational leadership
comprised of idealized influence, individualized consid-
eration, intellectual stimulation, and inspirational moti-
vation (Avolio, Bass, & Jung, 1999); empowerment com-
prised of meaning, competence, self-determination, and
impact (Spreitzer, 1995); and core self-evaluations con-
sisting of self-esteem, generalized efficacy, locus of con-
trol, and emotional stability (Judge & Bono, 2001).
The conceptual independence and discriminant va-
lidity of hope, optimism, efficacy, and resilience have
been theoretically presented (e.g., see Luthans, Avolio
et al., 2007; Snyder, 2002) and empirically demonstrated
(e.g., Avey et al., 2006; Bryant & Cvengros, 2004; Carifio
212 Lu t h a n s , a v e y , & P a t e r a i n A c A d e m y o f m A n A g e m e n t L e A r n i n g & e d u c A t i o n 7 ( 2 00 8 )
& Rhodes, 2002; Luthans, Avolio et al., 2007; Magaletta
& Oliver, 1999; Youssef & Luthans, 2007) in the positive
psychology and positive organizational behavior litera-
ture. In addition, allied theoretical support for PsyCap as
a second-order core construct can be found in psycho-
logical resources theory (see Hobfoll, 2002) and Fred-
rickson’s (2001) broaden-andbuild theory of positive
emotions. Law, Wong, and Mobley (1998) have also sug-
gested that multidimensional constructs such as psycho-
logical resources, or, in this case psychological capital,
may be better understood in terms of an underlying
core factor. This is especially evident when constructs
are highly related yet integrated with each other. For
example, faced with a setback, if highly resilient em-
ployees with the ability to bounce back are also self-ef-
ficacious and highly hopeful, they will be motivated to
persist and put forth the required effort to overcome the
problem, as well as pursue alternate pathways in order
to return to their original level or beyond where they
were before the adverse event. Moreover, those high
in optimism may have a positive perspective in gen-
eral, but combined with efficacy and hope, may also
have the persistence to pursue many alternative path-
ways when necessary to achieve their optimistic expec-
tations and goals.
Related support for PsyCap as a core construct can
also be drawn from the broaden-and-build theory. Fred-
erickson provides both theoretical and empirical evi-
dence that positive emotions trigger “upward spirals”
of broader thinking, functioning, and well-being (Fred-
rickson & Joiner, 2002). These processes act in a com-
binatorial way with each other to effect what she re-
fers to as “broaden-andbuild.” PsyCap is proposed to
also act in such an integrated, interactive, and broad-
ening way with its factors of hope, efficacy, optimism,
and resiliency in the motivated and motivating pursuit
of success and desirable organizational outcomes (see
Luthans, Avolio et al., 2007; Luthans & Youssef, 2007; Lu-
thans, Youssef, & Avolio, 2007).
On-Line Intervention Technology
Besides the theoretical and research foundation for
psychological capital, a brief review of on-line inter-
vention technology is also needed as background for
the study. The greatly increased demand of webbased
products, service, and treatment delivery carries over
to human resource development. Analogously, Selig-
man and colleagues recently called for the advance-
ment of positive interventions in clinical applications
that can “supplement traditional interventions that re-
lieve suffering and may someday be the practical leg-
acy of positive psychology” (Seligman, Steen, Park, &
Peterson, 2005: 410).
Despite the continuous technological advancements
and increased knowledge surrounding Internet inter-
ventions in clinical psychology (e.g., see Ritterband et
al., 2003), except for Seligman et al.’s (2005) work on
the learned properties of happiness and optimism, little
work has focused on on-line positivity interventions, and
none has been applied to the development of PsyCap.
However, an increasingly suggested supplement for tra-
ditional interventions has been the use of the Internet
as a viable media and, especially relevant to this study’s
training intervention, with the direct focus on develop-
ing positivity and the flourishing of individuals in both
the academic classroom and the workplace.
Much debate has surfaced in the past 20 years in the
learning and education scholarly community with re-
gard to the attributes and effectiveness of various me-
dia on learning. For example, many years ago Clark
(1983) made the claim that there are no learning ben-
efits gained from the media, but rather the media is a
vehicle that only delivers, not “causes,” learning. Fur-
thermore, he posited that it is the instructional methods
that cause learning, not the media (Clark, 1994). Despite
the controversial arguments around the issue of whether
media impacts learning, there is general agreement that
media and its attributes have significant influences on
the cost and speed of learning, and relevant to the on-
line intervention used in the present study, that “only the
use of adequate structural methods will influence learn-
ing” (Clark, 1994: 27). The intent of the web-based de-
livery of the PsyCap intervention used in this study was
not only to take advantage of the ease of implementa-
tion, delivery, cost, and accessibility, but to focus on the
structural methods used to impact learning and devel-
opment of PsyCap.
In the last decade, with dramatically increasing use
of on-line methods to deliver education, training, and in-
terventions, a number of studies have examined its ef-
fectiveness. Recent meta-analytic results of these stud-
ies indicate that web-based instruction may in some
ways be as effective, or for certain types of learning
more effective, than traditional face-to-face classroom
instruction (Sitzmann, Kraiger, Stewart, & Wisher, 2006).
Specifically, equivalent support for face-to-face and
webbased delivery was found for trainee satisfaction
and procedural knowledge, but for learning, declara-
tive knowledge the web-based approach was more ef-
fective (Sitzmann et al., 2006). Such findings
support the
use of the on-line PsyCap training intervention.
